The DF-15 (Dong Feng-15; export name: M-9; NATO reporting name: CSS-6) is a road-mobile, conventionally-armed, single-stage, solid-fuelled short-range ballistic missile (SRBM) system developed by Academy of Aerospace Solid Propulsion Technology (AASPT, or 4th Academy) of the China Aerospace Science & Technology Corporation (CASC) consortium. The missile first entered PLA service in the late 1980s and played a key role during the 1995/96 Taiwan Strait Crisis.

Programme

Development of the DF-15 began in 1985. The missile design was approved by the PLA in 1987 and the first test launch took place in June 1987. From the late 1980s to the early 1990s, a range of test launches were conducted from the Jiuquan Satellite Launch Centre (Shuang Cheng Tzu, or Base 20) in the Gobi Desert in northwest China. The missile system was first unveiled during the 1988 Beijing International Defence Exhibition, and a small number was believed to have been delivered to the PLA’s strategic missile force as early as 1989.

China’s first conventionally-armed SRBM system, the basic variant DF-15 is capable of delivering a 500 kg warhead over a distance of 600 km. The missile’s export name (M-9) suggested that it was also offered to the international market. However, contradictory to many misconceptions, the missile has never received any order, possibly due to the restrictions of the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) that prohibits the export of delivery systems and related technology for those systems capable of carrying more than 500 kg payload over a range of 300 km or above.

The 2009 US DoD Report to the Congress estimated that 350—400 missiles and 90—110 launchers were in operational deployment with the PLA Second Artillery Corps (now the PLA Rocket Force). In more recent years, the basic variant DF-15 in service has been replaced by the more capable DF-15B and C models, which feature extended range and more sophisticated re-entry vehicle.

1995/96 Taiwan Strait Missile Crisis

Between July 1995 and March 1996, the PLA conducted a series of military exercises and missile tests near the Taiwan Strait, intended to signal China’s displeasure at the island’s pursue of independence and intimidate Taiwan in the lead-up to a presidential election. The state-run Xinhua News Agency announced the missile tests shortly before they took place, and warned foreign aeroplanes and ships to avoid entering the target zones.

During the first missile test taking place from 21 to 23 July 1995, a total of six missiles were launched from an unknown location in Fujian Province. All missiles were launched between 01:00 to 04:00 hours local time in the early morning to avoid hitting civilian aircraft and ships accidentally. 5 out of 6 missiles reportedly hit the target zone in the international waters off the northwest coast of Taiwan.

The second test launch took place in March 1996, with two target zones set in international waters off the southwest and east coasts of Taiwan respectively. In the early morning (00:00 local time) on 8 March, two missiles were launched almost simultaneously from two launch sites, and both hit their target zones. At around 01:00 local time, another missile was launched from one of the launchers which were involved in the earlier launches to demonstrate its rapid reloading capability. On 12 March, the fourth missile was launched and hit the scheduled target zone.

According to US Navy intelligence, the missile launch and support troops involved in this operation were mobilised from their base in Jiangxi Province to the launch sites over a distance of several hundred kilometres, 60 hours prior to the scheduled launch time. About 20—30 missile launchers took part in the operation.

Design

The DF-15 uses an inertial guidance package, coupled to a faster on-board computer system to give a high accuracy. The early model has a circular error probable (CEP) of 300—600 m, but subsequent improvements on the guidance system has increased the missile’s accuracy to CEP 150—500 m. This allows the DF-15 to be used for a conventional precise-strike to destroy large fixed targets such as command & control centres, air defence missile sites, and airports. Further improvement in accuracy has been achieved by integrating a global positioning system (GPS) or a similar indigenously-developed satellite-based navigation and positing system.

The DF-15 carries a 500 kg single warhead and has a maximum range of 600 km. The missile is carried onboard an 8-wheeled Taian Special Vehicle Factory TA5450 transporter-erector-launcher (TEL) vehicle to provide full road and cross-country mobility. In time of crisis the missile system could be quickly mobilised from bases to launch locations by railway. The TEL vehicle then carries the missile to a launch site with pre-calculated coordinate data. Alternatively, the missile can be launched from an unprepared location by using GPS to obtain coordinate data.

The DF-15 can carry a range of warhead types including high-explosive, high-explosive incendiary, and armour-piercing sub-munitions. Other warhead types under development include mine-laying and electromagnetic shockwave.

DF-15B (CSS-6 Mod-2)

The improved DF-15B features active radar-homing terminal guidance and manoeuvrable re-entry vehicle (MaRV), which increase the missile’s accuracy to CEP 35—50 m. The B model can be identified by four small stabilising fins in the mid-section for corrections during the final phase of the flight. The DF-15B entered service with the PLA around 2008, and was first unveiled to the public during the National Day military parade on 1 October 2009.

DF-15C (CSS-6 Mod-3)

The DF-15C is similar to the DF-15 in appearance, but features an extended cylindrical-shaped nosecone, which was speculated to house a deep-penetration type warhead designed specifically to attack hardened underground bunkers.

Specifications

The DF-11 (Dong Feng-11; export name: M-11; NATO reporting name: CSS-7) is a road-mobile, conventionally-armed, single-stage, solid-fuelled short-range ballistic missile (SRBM) system developed and built by Sanjiang Space Group (Base 066, or the 9th Academy) of the China Aerospace Science & Industry Corporation (CASIC). The missile has been exported to Pakistan and produced locally as the Shaheen family of ballistic missiles. An improved variant designated DF-11A has been in service with the PLA since 1999.

Programme

The DF-11 development began in the late 1970s as China’s first conventionally-armed theatre ballistic missile system, possibly based on some of the Soviet R-17 (NATO reporting name: SS-1C ‘Scud-B’) technology. The missile and its 8-wheeled TEL vehicle were demonstrated to the PLA in 1987, and the first test launch took place in 1990. The DF-11, or the M-11 in its export name, is fully compliant with the requirements of the 1987 Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR), which restricts the export of delivery systems and related technology for those systems capable of carrying more than 500 kg payload over a range of 300 km or above.

Development of the improved DF-11A began in 1993 under PLA funding. In addition to extending its range from 280 km to 350 km, the missile is highlighted by its greater accuracy achieved through a combined INS/GPS guidance system. The first test launch was conducted successfully on 6 October 1997. However, in the second test launch few days after, the missile lost control shortly after take-off. The failure resulted in the missile’s certification for design finalisation being postponed to mid-1998. Initial operational capability was achieved some time in 1999, with a Missile Launch Brigade activated in the Nanjing Military Region.

The DF-11A was designed as a theatre strike weapon to fill the gap in firing range between artillery rocket systems (50—100 km range) and ballistic missiles of over 500 km range. The Nanjing Military Region deployed the PLA’s first operational DF-11 missile brigade (with 20—30 launchers) in the late 1990s. The 2009 U.S. DoD Report to the Congress estimated that by 2009 a total of 700—750 DF-11/CSS-7 missiles and 120—140 launchers had been deployed near the Taiwan Strait.

The Export of the DF-11/M-11 Technology

In 1992 U.S. satellites provided images showing M-11 missile canisters being delivered at Sargodha air base near Lahore, Pakistan. The Clinton administration concluded that China may have already transferred the M-11 missile system and its technology to Pakistan, though no direct evidence was provided. In August 1993 the U.S. announced its sanction against China for selling Pakistan missile components that were barred under the MTCR. The sanction led to U.S.-made sensitive high-tech equipment and components being banned for export to China, and the Chinese space industry being banned from launching U.S.-made commercial satellites for foreign customers. This sanction was lifted in 1994.

Pakistan developed Shaheen series short- and medium-range ballistic missile systems based the M-11 technology, but with a much extended range (600—700 km). A further 30 to 50 missiles and TEL vehicles may have been delivered to Iran in 1995 with the objective of setting up a final assembly and maybe even full production capability, but this report cannot be confirmed. It is possible that Iran may have obtained M-11 technology from other sources to develop its own solid-fuel mobile missile system.

Design

The DF-11 and its 8-wheeled transporter-erector-launcher (TEL) vehicle bear some resemblance to the R-17/SS-1C ‘Scud-B’. The basic variant DF-11 has a range of 280 km and delivers a single-warhead of 500 kg. The improved DF-11A has an extended range of over 350 km. As well as conventional high-explosive (HE) warhead, the missile may also be able to carry fuel-air explosive (FAE) and sub-munitions.

The basic variant DF-11 uses an inertial guidance plus terminal radar guidance package with a manoeuvrable re-entry vehicle (MaRV), giving a circular error probability (CEP) of 500—600 m. The improved DF-11A uses inertial/GPS guidance system with optical correlation terminal targeting, resulting in a greater accuracy of less than 200 m CEP. The missile has four large stabilising fins at the bottom as well as four small fins in the mid-section for corrections at the final phase of the flight.

The missile is launched from an 8-wheeled WS2400 transporter-erector-launcher (TEL) vehicle to provide full road and cross-country mobility. The vehicle has been developed and built by Wanshan Special Vehicle Manufactory, a subsidiary of the Sanjiang Space Group, in the early 1980s based on the Russian MAZ543.

Specifications

The DF-16 (Dong Feng-16; NATO reporting name: CSS-11) is a road-mobile, conventionally-armed, solid-fuelled short-range ballistic missile (SRBM) system developed and built by Sanjiang Space Group (Base 066, or the 9th Academy) of the China Aerospace Science & Industry Corporation (CASIC). The missile has been in service with the PLA Rocket Force (PLARF) since the early 2010s and was first unveiled to the public during the Victory Day military parade in Beijing on 15 September 2015.

Jane’s Strategic Weapon Systems first reported in September 2012 that China was developing a new short- to medium-range ballistic missile designated DF-16. The 2015 U.S. DoD Report on the PRC Military Power mentioned the DF-16 (CSS-11) for the first time, stating that the missile had already been in operational deployment.

Based on limited information available, it is understood that the DF-16 has been developed by Sanjiang Space Group (Base 066, or the 9th Academy) of the China Aerospace Science & Industry Corporation (CASIC). The missile was developed from the DF-11/M-11 (CSS-7) technology, but featuring a larger 1.2 m-diameter solid rocket engine and an extended range of 800—1,000 km. It has been suggested that the DF-16 has been designed to strike targets in Japan as well as U.S. military bases in Okinawa.

The missile is expected to be fitted with an Inertial Navigation System (INS) coupled with GPS mid-course guidance, plus a radar/optical terminal guidance system with a manoeuvrable re-entry vehicle (MaRV) to achieve a CEP of 5—10 m, enough for precision strike against a point target. The missile is carried on a five-axle (10 x 10) Sanjiang Wanshan (WS) series transporter-erector-launcher (TEL) vehicle as opposed to the four-axle (8 x 8) TEL used by the DF-11, indicating a significantly increased launch mass of the missile.

Specifications

Currently the PLA operates two dedicated aerial refuelling tanker aircraft: the Xian HY-6 and the Ukrainian IL-78. The HY-6 represents the very first steps taken by China in developing the aerial refuelling capability for long-range power projection beyond its own territories. The acquisition of three ex-Ukrainian Air Force IL-78 tanker aircraft in 2014 represents another significant boost in the PLA’s ability to extend its operations in the East China Sea and South China Sea regions.

Background

The PLA first sought to acquire the aerial refuelling capability in the early 1980s, with both foreign purchase and indigenous development being considered. In 1983, the Chinese Ministry of Aeronautics and the PLA Air Force (PLAAF) jointly proposed the development of the Y-10 (Chinese reverse-engineered copy of the Boeing 707) passenger jet into an aerial refuelling tanker fitted with two British Mk32 refuelling pods. Following the cancellation of the Y-10 programme in 1985, the Ministry of Aeronautics sought to purchase the Boeing 707 aircraft directly from the United States as the platform for its tanker aircraft. Thirty units of the Mk32 refuelling pod were ordered from Britain. However, all talks stopped after 1989 as a result of the arms embargo imposed by the United States and European Union.

The indigenous development of the aerial refuelling tanker aircraft was included in China’s 7th Five-Year Plan in 1981. Pre-research of relevant technologies including the refuelling pod, TACAN aircraft navigation system, inertial navigation system (INS), and weather radar was initiated in 1982. In 1988, the PLA approved the plan to develop the Xi’an H-6 (Chinese copy of the Tu-16 ‘Badger’) medium-range bomber into an aerial refuelling tanker, with the Shenyang J-8II ‘Finback’ fighter to be added with the capability to receive in-flight refuelling.

Between November 1988 and June 1989, the PLAAF flew the H-6 bomber and J-8II fighter in refuelling formations. Conversion of an existing H-6 bomber into aerial refuelling tanker began in March 1990 and the H-6 and J-8II aircraft completed relevant modifications in February 1991. The modified H-6 tanker first flew in June 1991. The first successful in-flight refuelling operation between an H-6 tanker and a J-8II fighter was carried out on 20 October 1991.

Xi’an HY-6 ‘Badger’

Both the PLAAF and the PLANAF operate the H-6 tanker aircraft. The air force version HY-6 (Hong You-6) were newly-built airframes with a solid nose, while the navy version HY-6D were converted from existing H-6D bomber airframes, which retained the glass-in nose and the large under-chin radome for fire-control radar. About 20 examples in total are currently in operational service.

PLAAF HY-6

PLA Naval Air Force HY-6D

The tanker aircraft carries 37 tonnes of aviation fuel inside its tanks and can transfer 18.5 tonnes of fuel to the fighter aircraft. The refuelling system consists if two RDC-1 refuelling pods developed by China Institute of Aero Accessories. The two pods are mounted on pylons under each wing and a control panel in the operator’s station. Two fighter aircraft can be refuelled at the same time. The operator station is located inside the original tail gun turret on the H-6 bomber.

RDC-1 Refuelling Pod

Each HY-6 is capable of refuelling two J-8D fighters simultaneously, and up to six fighters in one round. Each refuel can extend the aircraft’s combat radius from 800 km to 1,200 km. The HY-6 is also capable of refuelling the Shenyang J-8 and Chengdu J-10 fighters, but its refuelling system is not compatible with the refuelling probe of the Russian-made Su-30MKK.

The HY-6 has a similar avionic configuration as the H-6E/F bomber. For refuelling operations, the tanker has two inertial navigation systems (INS) (one for backup) for navigation, two TACAN systems for all-weather day/night mutual detection and approach from distances up to 200 km, and a weather radar replacing the original bombing radar in the nose. The aircraft also has radio/light signal system for night refuelling operations. The aircraft’s electronic countermeasures (ECM) suite includes a radar warning receiver (RWR) and chaff/flare dispensers.

H-6U Specifications

Flight crew:..................3
Empty weight:.................37,700 kg
Normal take-off weight........72,000 kg
Max take-off weight...........75,800 kg
Max internal fuel capacity:...37,000 kg
Refuelling capacity:..........18,500 kg
Max speed:....................1,014 km/h
Cruising speed:...............Mach 0.75 (786 km/h)
Max range:....................4,500 km
Service ceiling:..............12,200 m

IL-78 ‘Midas’

As the indigenous HY-6 tanker only has limited capability and performance, the PLAAF has been seeking a more capable design such as the IL-78 ‘Midas’ since the early 2000s. In 2005, China signed a deal worth US$1.045 billion with Russia to purchase 30 examples of the IL-76 transport aircraft and 8 examples of the IL-78 tanker aircraft. However, none of the aircraft was delivered as a result of increased production costs and dispute between the aircraft manufacturer in Uzbekistan and the Russian arms trading company.

After the purchase deal with Russia finally collapsed in 2008, China turned to Ukraine to purchase refurbished second-hand aircraft in order to meet its immediate requirements for long-range airlift and aerial refuelling capabilities. Between 2011 and 2012, China signed two contracts with Ukrainian state-owned defence export firm Ukrspetsexport to purchase three IL-78 ‘Midas’ tankers and five IL-76MD/MT ‘Candid’ transport aircraft from the Ukrainian MoD surplus, with a total price tag of US$95.5 million. The contract for the three refurbished IL-78 tankers worth US$44.7 million was finalised in December 2012, with the Nikolaev Aircraft Repair Plant (NARP) responsible for the repairs and refurbishment of these aircraft.

First introduced by the Soviet Air Force in the early 1980s, the IL-78 was derived from the IL-76 ‘Candid’ jet airlifter. The aircraft was developed as a three-point air-to-air probe and drogue tanker aircraft, with fuel tanks installed inside its fuselage and three hose and drogue refuelling pods carried under the wings and rear fuselage (port side). The refuelling pods are controlled by an operator located at the flight engineer’s station in the cockpit. The aircraft has a crew of six, including two pilots, a communications operator, a navigator, a flight engineer, and a refuelling operator.

Powered by four Aviadvigatel D-30 KP turbofan engines, the IL-78 can fly at a maximum speed of 850 km/h, with a maximum range of 7,300 km and a service ceiling of 12,000 m. The aircraft has an empty weight of around 72,000 kg and the maximum take-off weight is 210,000 kg.

The aircraft’s avionics include an integrated flight control and navigation system with radio compass, ground surveillance radar, a central computer, an automatic monitoring (AMS) and automatic flight control system (AFCS), a short-haul radio navigation and landing system, identification friend or foe (IFF) transponder, optical/IR aiming sight and a ground collision warning system (GCWS). Other avionics installed in the aircraft include distance measuring equipment (DME), dual very-high-frequency (VHF) navigation / communication and X-band colour weather radar in the nose, cockpit voice recorder / flight data recorder (CVR/FDR), instrument landing system (ILS) and a tactical aid for navigation (TACAN) system. More modern variants of the aircraft are also fitted with traffic collision avoidance system (TCAS) and global positioning system (GPS).

IL-78 in PLAAF color scheme spotted in Ukraine

It is not known exactly which model of the IL-78 was delivered to the PLAAF. One possibility is that these are the IL-78MP variant converted from surplus Ukrainian IL-76 stocks. The IL-78MP is a dual-use multirole transport/tanker with removable tanks carried in the aircraft’s cargo bay, with a fuel payload capacity of 85 tonnes. Four examples of the same variant are in service with the Pakistani Air Force (PAF). However, it is also possible that these are the ex-Ukrainian Air Force IL-78Ms, which is a dedicated tanker with a fuel payload capacity of 138 tonnes. Both variants are fitted with three UPAZ-1M ‘Sakhalin’ refuelling pods, with two carried under the wings and one fitted on the port side of the rear fuselage. China has also reportedly obtained some examples of the UPAZ-1M refuelling pods from Ukraine for research and possibly reverse-engineering.

The first IL-78 was identified to have been delivered to the PLAAF 13th Air Division as of October 2014, followed by the second in 2015. In August 2016, a Chinese Ministry of Defence spokesperson confirmed that PLAAF aircraft including Su-30MKK fighters and H-6K bombers had conducted a combat patrol near the Scarborough Shoal and the Spratly Islands in the disputed South China Sea. Publicity photos have shown PLAAF Su-30MKKs receiving in-flight refuelling from the IL-78 tanker.

IL-78M Specifications

Flight crew:..................6
Empty weight:.................72,000 kg
Max take-off weight:..........210,000 kg
Max internal fuel capacity:...37,000 kg
Refuelling capacity:..........138,000 kg
Number of refuelling pods:....3
Fuel transfer rate:...........900 to 2,200 litres/min
Max speed:....................850 km/h
Max range:....................7,300 km
Service ceiling:..............12,000 m

Kaiyangxing (pennant number 856), the PLA Navy’s new-generation electronic surveillance ship, was commissioned at Qingdao Naval Base on Tuesday, 10 January 2017. The ship joins the Combat Support Flotilla of the PLA Navy North Sea Fleet.

Kaiyangxing is believed to be the latest hull of the Type 815 (NATO code name: Dongdiao class) seagoing naval surveillance ship, which is capable of operating in all-weather, day/night conditions to gather electronic and signal intelligence (ELINT and SIGNINT) of surface targets. The ship’s large radome near the stern is believed to be used for ballistic missile tracking.

The Shanghai-based Hudong-Zhonghua Shipyard began to construct the Type 815 seagoing naval surveillance ship for the PLA Navy in the late 1990s, with a single hull Beijixing (851) constructed. This was followed by the improved Type 815A, with four hulls launched between 2009 and 2014: Tianwangxing (853), Tianlangxing (854), 855, and Haiwangxing (852).

In June last year, PLA Navy surveillance ship 855, a sister ship of the latest hull, briefly entered Japanese territorial waters.

China purchased the unfinished ex-Soviet Navy aircraft carrier Varyag from Ukraine in 1998 and finally received the vessel in 2002. After some extensive refurbishments at the Dalian Shipyard in northern China, the vessel was commissioned into the PLA Navy in September 2012 as Liaoning, with hull number ‘16’ and the class name Type 001.

The primary role of the vessel is to serve as a training platform for the PLA Navy to gain experience in operating from a modern aircraft carrier, and to develop and perfect the relevant technologies that will be used for the design and construction of China’s indigenous carriers.

History

The Varyag is the second hull of the Soviet Navy Project 1143.5 (Admiral Kuznetsov class) aircraft carrier. The 67,500-tonne vessel was laid down at the Nikolayev South Shipyard (formerly Shipyard 444) in Nikolayev on 6 December 1985 and was launched on 4 December 1988. The vessel was renamed Varyag in July 1990.

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the ownership of the vessel was transferred to Ukraine. Construction stopped by 1992 due to a lack of funding. By then, 70% of the construction had been finished. The vessel was structurally completed but without weapons, electronics, or propulsion. China first expressed interest in purchasing the Varyag in 1992. Chinese officials inspected the vessel stationed at the dock of the Nikolayev South Shipyard, but the negotiations were fruitless due to dispute over price. As a result, the unfinished Varyag remained at the dock unattended for six years.

In the late 1990s, the vessel was put up for auction and bought by a Macau-based Chinese company for US$20 million for conversion into a floating Casino and amusement park. The contract with Ukraine prohibited the buyer from using the vessel for military purposes. Before handing the ship over, the Ukrainians stripped all onboard equipment with potential military values.

11 years after its launch, in 1999, the Varyag finally left the dock of the Nikolayev South Shipyard, towed by several high-power tug boats on its way to the Far East. However, the vessel was refused to pass through the Bosporus Strait by the Turkish government on the ground that the unpowered vessel posed too much risk for other ships as well as facilities in the strait. The Varyag was stationed near the strait for three years. It was only after the Chinese government intervened and handed the Turkish government US$1 million as a guarantee bond that the vessel was finally approved to continue its journey in 2002.

After a troublesome journey, the Varyag finally arrived at the Dalian Shipyard in northern China in March 2002 and was stationed there under tight security. By then it became apparent that the vessel was not going to be turned into an amusement park. Instead, it was handed to the PLA Navy for research and restoration. Along with the vessel, Ukraine also handed to China all of the vessel’s blueprints and design documents.

In 2005, the vessel was moved to a dry dock in the Dalian Shipyard painted in the PLA Navy grey, with scaffoldings erected around. The restoration work was completed in late 2006. The aircraft was then moved to another dry dock in April 2009 to install engines and other heavy equipment. System installation commenced in late 2010. By March 2011 the island superstructure was almost complete, with painting finished and scaffolding removed.

In June 2011, the PLA Chief of Staff General Chen Bingde confirmed that China was building an aircraft carrier—the first official acknowledgement of the existence of such a project. On 27 July, the Chinese Ministry of National Defence (MND) announced that it was refitting a second-hand aircraft carrier for research, testing, and training purposes. The first four-day sea trial of the vessel began in August, followed by a second set of trials in December, before the vessel was returned to the shipyard for final touches.

On 25 September 2012, the aircraft carrier was officially commissioned into the PLA Navy as Liaoning, with the class name Type 001 and hull number 16. On 23 November of the same year, PLA Naval Air Force J-15 fighters successfully performed ski-jump take-off, touch-and-go, and arrested landing from the Liaoning for the first time. It was estimated that crew training would continue for 4 to 5 years before the aircraft carrier reaches its full operational capacity.

The Liaoning undergoing sea trial

In November 2016, Chinese state media citing government sources claimed that the country’s first aircraft carrier was “combat ready”. On 25 December of the same year, a PLA Navy formation including the Liaoning set off for the western Pacific for an open-sea training exercise, after carrying out a live-fire exercise in the Bohai Sea a week before. On its way back, the aircraft carrier along with its battle group sailed through the Taiwan Strait.

Aircraft

The Liaoning features a short take-off but arrested recovery (STOBAR) arrangement. Aircraft take-off is assisted by a bow ski-jump angled at 14°. The flight desk is fitted with arresting wires. Two starboard lifts carry the aircraft from the hangar to the flight deck. The carrier operates a number of Shenyang J-15 Flying Shark carrier-based multirole fighters, including its two-seat fighter-trainer variant J-15S.

In addition, the PLA Naval Air Force has been flying several models of ship-based helicopters from the vessel, including the indigenous Changhe Z-18 transport helicopter, Z-18J AEW helicopter, Z-18F ASW helicopter, and Z-9D SAR helicopter.

Weapons

The Varyag was originally to be fitted with a Granit (SS-N-9 Shipwreck) anti-ship missile system. The missile launcher was removed before the vessel was sold to China, and the launcher base was removed during the refit to give a larger aircraft hangar space. Instead, the Liaoning relies on short-range air defence missiles, its onboard fighter aircraft, and its escort surface combatants for air defence, and its air power for surface attack.

For air defence, the Liaoning is fitted with four HQ-10 (a.k.a. FL-3000N) air-defence missile systems, each with an 18-cell missile launcher. The missile launcher is similar to the U.S. Navy RIM-116 in arrangement. Derived from the TY-90 short-range air-to-air missile, the HQ-10 is fitted with a dual passive radar-/infrared-homing seeker and has a maximum range of 9,000 m. An improved variant is reportedly fitted with an independent active infrared seeker, with a maximum range of 10,000 m.

There are also two Type 1030 close-in weapon system (CIWS), which is the 10-barrel version of the Type 730 CIWS. The weapon system has a 10-barrel 30-mm cannon, which is fed by two ammunition boxes each holding 500 rounds of ready-to-use ammunition. One magazine would typically hold armour piercing discarding sabot and the other high explosives. The empty cartridge cases are ejected forwards out of the lower part of the mount. The cannon is driven by external power, with a maximum cyclic rate of fire of 3,500—6,000 rounds/min. The cannon has a maximum range of 3,000 m, but targets are typically engaged at a distance of 1,000—1,500 m.

Sensors

Sensors spotted on the Liaoning include:

• Type 382 Sea Eagle S/C air-search radar (mast top);
• Type 346 air search radar, with a set of four active electronically scanned array (AESA) panels on the bridge;
• HQ-10 SAM fire-control radar;
• Sea search radar;
• Aircraft surveillance radar;
• Navigation radar;
• Datalink antenna;
• SATCOM antenna;

Propulsion

The Liaoning is conventionally powered, possibly using a propulsion system similar to that of the Russian Navy Kuznetsov, consisting of eight boilers and four steam turbines (50,000 hp each). The vessel is fitted with four shafts with fixed-pitch propellers.

Service History

Specifications

As part of its ongoing military restructuring programme, the Chinese People’s Liberation Army (PLA) is reorganising its 18 corps-sized group armies within its Ground Force into 13 new group armies numbered 71 to 83. In addition, it is also introducing significant changes to the airborne corps, currently under the control of the PLA Air Force.

New Group Armies

On 27 April, a spokesperson of the Chinese Ministry of National Defence (MND) announced the creation of 13 new group armies (GAs), organised from the forces of its existing 18 GAs.

Most operational units of the PLA Ground Force have been grouped into GAs, which are corps-sized combined arms units headed by a Major General. They typically consist of several infantry divisions or brigades, augmented by combat and logistic support elements including armour, artillery, air defence, aviation, special operations force (SOF), engineer, signal, chemical defence, etc.

The old Group Army system was the direct lineal descendant of the numbered army corps of the PLA created in the final years of the Chinese Civil War. By 1948, there were as many as 70 infantry corps in the PLA, and this number was reduced to 35 by the late 1980s. As part of the one-million-man force reduction in 1985—87, the 35 infantry corps were reduced to 24 and reorganised into GAs. Under the 500,000-man reduction in 1996—2000, the number of GAs was cut down to 21. The 200,000-man reduction in 2003 saw a further reduction in the number of GAs to 21, followed by a further reduction in 2009, with the number of GAs reduced to 18.

The latest round of force reduction and restructuring programme, which is believed to have started earlier this year, has reduced the number of GAs from 18 to 13. However, unlike previous restructuring programmes where existing GA designations were retained in order to preserve their historical lineages, the old GA designations have been completely scraped and the remaining 13 GAs have been allocated with new designations numbered from 71 to 83.

According to the Chinese social media, the 13 GAs have been formed largely on the basis of existing GAs, under the command of the five Ground Force Theatre Commands: Eastern Theatre (71^st, 72^nd and 73^rd GA), Southern Theatre (74^th and 75^th GA), Western Theatre 76^th and 77^th GA), Northern Theatre (78^th, 79^th and 80^th GA), and Central Theatre (81^st, 82^nd and 83^rd GA).

At the same time, the existing 14^th, 20^th, 27^th, 40^th and 47^th GA have been disbanded.

Overall, the recent military reorganisation programme has formed 84 corps-sized units across all five services (ground, air, navy, rocket, and strategic support) of the PLA. In addition to the 13 GAs, other corps-sized units will comprise garrisons, provincial military areas, military academies and universities, research institutes, as well as corps-sized units within the Air Force, Navy, Rocket Force, and Strategic Support Force.

Reorganisation of Airborne Corps

Another major development occurred in late March and early April, when the PLA initiated the restructuring of its airborne force.

Prior to the restructuring, the airborne force, under the control of the PLA Air Force, consisted of a single corps-sized unit the 15^th Airborne Corps. The corps consisted of three airborne divisions (43^rd, 44^th, and 45^th), each consisting of two airborne regiments, as well as a Special Operations Force (SOF) group, an airlift regiment, and a helicopter group.

Following the restructuring, the 15^th Airborne Corps was scraped and reorganised into the PLA Airborne Corps. The three three airborne divisions were also scraped, and their six subordinated airborne regiments have been expanded into six airborne brigades (127^th, 128^th, 130^th, 131^st, 133^rd, and 134^th Airborne Brigade). The SOF Group has been expanded into the Special Operations Brigade. The airlift regiment and the helicopter group have been merged to form the Aviation Brigade. The signal regiment, engineering detachment, and chemical-defence detachment have been merged to form the Support Brigade.

The ending of the old corps-division-regiment structure and the forming of the new nine-brigade-strong Airborne Corps (six airborne brigades, a special ops brigade, an aviation brigade, and a support brigade) signals a major expansion of the airborne force, which have been traditionally serving as a strategically mobile unit, capable of being deployed anywhere in the country in a very short time frame. Since the early 2000s, the historically lightly-armed airborne force has been allocated with airdrop-capable armour and artillery equipment.

The COMAC C919 passenger jet, China’s first indigenously-developed ‘big jet’, successfully completed its maiden test flight on 5 May 2017, marking the first major milestone in China’s effort to break into the commercial airliner market which has been dominated by Boeing and Airbus.

The first of a range of designs that have been proposed by COMAC, the C919 is a narrow-body, single-aisle, twin-engine airliner comparable in size and performance to the Airbus A320 family, Boeing 737 family, Bombardier CS300, and Irkut MC-21.

With a fuselage length of 38.9 m and wingspan of 35.8 m, the C919 can be configured with 158 seats (two-class) or 168 seats (all-economy). The aircraft is powered by two CFM International LEAP 1C turbofan engines, giving a maximum operating speed of 900 km/h (560 m/h), a service ceiling of 12,100 m (FL397), and a maximum range of 4,075 to 5,555 km. Aviation Industry Corporation of China (AVIC) is currently developing a domestic turbofan engine designated CJ-1000A, which could serve as an alternative to the foreign-made engines on the C919.

Although it will be some time before the C919 is able to compete directly with the more popular Airbus A320neo and Boeing 737 MAX families, the jet airliner has achieved some initial commercial success, with around 500 orders received so far. At the 2010 Zhuhai Air Show, COMAC revealed that it plans to develop six variants of the C919, including stretched body, shortened body, cargo, business jet, and ‘special’ variants. The company is also planning to develop a larger, two-aisle, wide-body variant which could rival the like of the Airbus A330 family.

The revelation of the ‘special’ variant indicates the intention to use the C919 as an aerial platform for military roles, following the example of the Boeing 707 being developed into the E-3 Sentry, E-8C JSTARS, and KC-135 Stratotanker; the Boeing 737 being developed into the E-7A Wedgetail and P-8 Poseidon; and the A330 into the Multi Role Tanker Transport (MRTT).

The PLA Air Force has been seeking to expand its special role aircraft fleet for some time, but its ambition has been limited by the availability of a suitable aerial platform. Most of the PLAAF’s special role aircraft have been based on the indigenous Xi’an Y-7 (An-24/26), Shaanxi Y-8/9 (An-12), and the Russian Il-76 transport aircraft. However, the bulky airframes of these designs, intended to accommodate as much cargoes as possible, means that they are not particularly fuel efficient. Passenger airliners, with their fuel-efficient engines and slim body airframe, coupled with military-grade communications, navigation and electronic countermeasures systems, provide an ideal aerial platform for missions that require long-endurance, such as AEW&C, electronic warfare, anti-submarine warfare, aerial refuelling, etc.

The PLAAF has already achieved some small-scale success in converting passenger airliners for military roles. For example, a number of Russian-made Tu-154M jets serving with the PLAAF were converted into electronic reconnaissance aircraft equipped with electronic intelligence (ELINT) suite and synthetic aperture radar (SAR). More recently, the PLAAF converted two Boeing 737-300 passenger planes into airborne command posts.

PLAAF Tu-154M/D electronic reconnaissance aircarft

PLAAF Boeing 737-300 airborne command post

There will be a number of hurdles before the C919 can be used for military roles. The most obvious barrier is the availability of its foreign-made parts and engines. The supply of the CFM International LEAP 1C turbofans and other imported parts is likely to be subject to agreement for commercial uses only. Only when indigenous alternatives become available can the C919 be built as a military aerial platform. It is estimated that China is still years away before fully grasping the turbofan engine technology, and China’s indigenous combat and transport aircraft continue rely on Russian-built engines.

On 26 April, China’s first indigenously-built Type 001A aircraft carrier was launched in northeast China’s Dalian Shipyard, a major milestone in the PLA Navy’s two-decade aircraft carrier programme.

The new carrier, which has yet been officially named, is largely based on its predecessor, the Soviet-built Varyag, now serving with the PLA Navy as the Liaoning (CV-16). The vessel will provide the PLA Navy with its second fully operational aircraft carrier, with some increased capability. It will carry more aircraft onboard, and will be fitted with upgraded radar and sensors. More importantly, the launch of the new carrier proves that China has finally gained the capability to design and build a modern aircraft carrier independently.

Construction of the Type 001A carrier began in November 2013, shortly after the commission of the Liaoning. Hull assembly inside a dry dock began in March 2015. In December 2015, a Ministry of National Defence (MND) spokesperson confirmed that existence of the indigenous aircraft carrier programme, confirming that the design and construction work was underway. The launch ceremony on 26 April 2017 was attended by General Fan Changlong, Vice Chairman of the Central Military Commission (CMC) and the highest uniformed leader of the PLA.

Like the Varyag/Liaoning (Type 001), the Type 001A carrier also features a short take-off but arrested recovery (STOBAR) arrangement. Aircraft take-off is assisted by a bow ski-jump angled at 14°. The flight desk is fitted with arresting wires. Two starboard lifts carry the aircraft from the hangar to the flight deck. The carrier operates the Shenyang J-15 Flying Shark carrier-based multirole fighter (including its two-seater variant J-15S), and the Changhe Z-18 helicopter and Harbin Z-9 helicopter for the transport, AEW, ASW and SAR roles.

The Type 001A allows an opportunity for the Chinese shipbuilder to fine tune the design of the Varyag, including a larger hangar to allow more aircraft to be carried, upgraded radar and sensors, higher level of automation, improved crew living conditions, and increased capacity for fuel and other consumables.

The PLA has been seeking to develop a ‘blue water’ navy, capable of operating in high seas beyond China’s offshore waters. However, this ambition has been severely limited by the Chinese shipbuilding industry’s inability to construct a modern aircraft carrier. There have been numerous rumours about possible deals to purchase foreign-built aircraft carriers or an indigenous building programme, but most of these turned out to be false. Instead, China took a more cautious approach, beginning with purchase and research of retired foreign carriers including the former Australian carrier HMAS Melbourne (1985), and former Soviet carriers Minsk (1998) and Kiev (2000). In 2002, China received the incomplete ex-Soviet Navy Project 1143.5 aircraft carrier Varyag from Ukraine. Following an extensive restoration and refit programme, the vessel was finally commissioned in 2012 as the country’s first aircraft carrier.

The Type 001A carrier is expected to gain full operational capability by 2020. However, the PLA Navy’s carrier ambition does not stop here. Already there have been reports suggesting that a third, lager aircraft carrier featuring catapult-assisted take-off has begun construction at the Shanghai-based Jiangnan Shipyard.

The PLA Rocket Force (PLARF) recently test fired a new-type missile in the eastern Bohai Sea, a spokesman of the Chinese Ministry of National Defence (MND) confirmed on Tuesday 9 May.

In reply to media enquiry about a recent missile firing test, the spokesman stated: “to improve the troops’ capability of carrying out missions and efficiently deal with national security threats, the PLA Rocket Force recently conducted an operational test for its new-type missile weapons in waters of the Bohai Sea according to the annual training plan and achieved the expected results”. The spokesman did not disclose the exact type of missile involved in the firing test.

The timing and location of the latest Chinese missile firing test was clearly amid at the escalating crisis in the Korean Peninsula following the recent missile tests by North Korea, as well as the growing tensions between Beijing and Soul over the deployment of the U.S. Terminal High Altitude Area Defence (THAAD) system to South Korea.

Back in April, a video was circulated on Chinese social media showing the wreckage of a jettisoned rocket motor identified in Inner Mongolia, possibly from a ballistic missile test conducted from a nearby location. The rocket motor features E/ADF-26B in its body, which has been interpreted by some observers as a new variant of the Dong Feng-26 (DF-26) intermediate-range ballistic missile (IRBM), possibly designated DF-26B.

The DF-26, first revealed during the 2015 Victory Day parade in Beijing, has been nicknamed “Guam Express”, which refers to its 3,500—4,000 km range, enough to reach the second island chain in the Western Pacific and U.S. military bases on the island of Guam. The missile was described as being capable of engaging targets both on land and in the sea. It is also capable of delivering either a nuclear or a conventional warhead, with a manoeuvrable re-entry vehicle (MaRV) coupled with terminal active-homing guidance to achieve a high level of accuracy.

The twin-seat fighter-trainer variant of the Chengdu FC-1 Xiaolong successful completed its maiden flight on 27 April.

The FC-1 Xiaolong, currently serving with the Pakistani Air Force (PAF) as the JF-17 Thunder, is a single-engine, multirole fighter aircraft first introduced in 2003. However, the aircraft can trace its origin to the Super-7, a failed Sino-US cooperation project amid to radically upgrade the Chengdu J-7 (MiG-21F) fighter. Following the withdrawal of the US partner, Chengdu continued the development programme under Russian assistance, and later formed a partnership with the Pakistani Aeronautical Complex (PAC) to jointly develop the aircraft as a low-cost fighter solution for the PAF.

The joint development contract between Chengdu and PAC was signed in 1999, and the maiden flight of the aircraft, now renamed the FC-1, took place in August 2003. The initial production of the aircraft for the PAF under the designation of the Joint Fighter-17 (JF-17) Thunder began sometime in 2006, and the aircraft entered service with the PAF in 2007. Chengdu was responsible for building the airframe and providing its weapon suite. Russia supplied its RD-93 turbofan engine to power the aircraft. Some Western contractors supplied avionics and other equipment.

The JF-17 production has been gradually shifted from Chengdu to PAC, with 50 examples in the Block 1 configuration and 33 examples in the improved Block 2 configuration built as of the end of 2016. PAC is also planning to build the further improved Block 3 variant in the future. The aircraft has achieved some success in the export market, with small orders reportedly received from Nigeria and Myanmar.

During the 2013 Paris Air Show, Chengdu first revealed the twin-seat variant of the FC-1/JF-17, and the engineering development of the aircraft began in November 2015. Other than having an additional seat, the twin-seat variant of the aircraft differs to the single-eat variant in its larger swept-back vertical stabiliser and a deeper dorsal spine for additional fuel and avionics. The aircraft also reportedly features a more advanced 3-axis fly-by-wire (FBW) control replacing the original analogue system.

The twin-seat FC-1B/JF-17B has been developed at the request of the PAF to provide much needed training capability for its JF-17 pilots. However, like its single-seat predecessor, the aircraft won’t be acquired by the PLA, which has already ordered designs with similar performance such as the Guizhou JL-9 and Hongdu JL-10.

The FC-1 Xiaolong (Fierce Dragon) is the result of a joint Sino-Pakistani development programme that commenced in 1999, with each side contributing 50% of the total development cost. The aircraft was designed by Chengdu Aircraft Design Institute (611 Institute). Chengdu Aircraft Industry Corporation (CAC) of China is the prime contractor for aircraft development and manufacture, while Pakistani Aeronautical Complex (PAC) is the main partner responsible for post-sale service and maintenance, and more recently the licensed production of the aircraft in Pakistan. Russia supplied its Klimov RD-93 turbofan jet engine for the aircraft.

The initial order was from the Pakistani Air Force (PAF) for eight examples, which were delivered in 2007—08. A further order for 42 airframes in the Block-I configuration worth about US$800 million was signed in March 2009, and these aircraft were delivered in 2010—11. A second order for additional 50 examples in the improved Block-II configuration began delivery in 2016, and these airframes were all built locally in Pakistan. The PAF is expected to place its third order for further 50 examples in 2017. These airframes will also be built in Pakistan and in the more advanced Block-III configuration, which features an Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) fire-control radar.

The JF-17 has also reportedly received small-number orders from two foreign customers—Nigeria and Myanmar. In addition, PAC will also produce the two-seater variant JF-17B, which made its maiden flight in April 2017.

Programme

The FC-1 traces its origin to the Super-7 fighter programme, a joint Chengdu-Grumman development project worth US$500 million to upgrade the Chengdu J-7 (MiG-21F-13 ‘Fishbed-C’) fighter. Proposed upgrades included removing the fighter’s nose air intake and replacing it with a ‘solid’ nose housing the fire-control radar with two lateral air intakes, as well as upgrading the fighter with Western-made avionics and engine. The development agreement was signed in 1986, but the programme was cancelled in 1990 in the wake of the cooling political relations between China and the West, as well as in response to a 40% increase in the cost of the project.

Chengdu continued the Super-7 project independently and re-branded the design as FC-1. In 1999, China and Pakistan concluded a joint development and production agreement to co-develop the FC-1 fighter. Under the agreement, the programme was to be jointly funded by the China Aviation Import and Export Corporation (CATIC) and Pakistan, each with 50% stake of the joint venture. The total cost of the development programme was estimated to be US$150 million. Russian Mikoyan Aero-Science Production Group (MASPG) reportedly provided some assistance in the development of the aircraft

The first prototype of the FC-1 rolled out on 31 May 2003, and the aircraft made its maiden flight successfully on 25 August. A total of three flying prototypes were developed, along with a static prototype. Flight trial of the aircraft completed in 2005 and the aircraft entered production in June 2006.

In March 2007, CAC delivered two JF-17 fighters (#101, #102) to the PAF on 12 March 2007. They made their debut on 23 March during a fly-past as part of the Pakistan Day military parade in Islamabad. A further six aircraft were delivered to the PAF in 2008. Under the joint development agreement, the PAF will acquire up to 250 examples of the fighter in several batches, with the avionics systems gradually upgraded in later batches. The assembly of the JF-17 was to be shifted to PAC in later batches, and some production was also to be carried out by PAC in Pakistan, including the manufacture of the aircraft’s wings and fin.

Design

The FC-1 adopts a rather conventional aerodynamic layout, with mid-mounted wings, lateral air intakes, single-frame bubble cockpit canopy, and two under-belly stabilising fins. The drag chute bay is located at the root of the rudder. An electronic equipment pod is mounted on the tip of the rudder. The production variant (JF-17) features a diffuser supersonic inlet (DSI) similar to those of the U.S. F-35 fighter for better air-intake efficiency.

Radar

The FC-1/JF-17 is equipped with a Chinese indigenous KLJ-7 X-band multifunctional pulse-Doppler (PD) radar developed by Nanjing Research Institute of Electronics Technology (NRIET, a.k.a. CETC 14 Institute). The radar uses a mechanically-steered planar array antenna and may have links to Russian technology. The radar can work in either beyond visual range (BVR), close-in air-to-air modes, or ground surveillance mode, and has a robust anti-jamming capability. The radar can reportedly manage up to 40 targets, monitor up to 10 of them in track-while-scan (TWS) mode, and simultaneously fire on two BVR targets, with a maximum detection range of 75 km for air targets and 135 km for sea surface targets.

CAC claimed that the FC-1/JF-17 can also be integrated with foreign-made fire-control radar, including the Italian Grifo S-7, Thales RC400, GEC Marconi Blue Hawk, and Russian Phazotron Zemchug/Kopyo, which would allow the aircraft to fire Western/Russian weapons.

The Block-III variant of the JF-17 will be fitted with a Chinese-made AESA fire-control radar in place of the original KLJ-7.

Cockpit and Avionics Systems

The FC-1/JF-17’s avionics architecture is supported by two mission computers based on Multi-Bus System (MIL-STD-1553B). The heart of the system is a 32-bit Weapon and Mission Management Computer (WMMC) which performs mission computations, flight management, reconfiguration / redundancy management and in-flight system self-test.

• Navigation – Hybrid inertial navigation system (INS) and global positioning system (GPS);
• Communications – Independent data link with two Independent wide-band radios with anti-jamming capabilities;
• Electronic warfare (EW) – Self-production jammer (KG300G or KG600), missile approach warning system, radar warning receiver (RWR), chaff & flare dispenser;
• Identification of Friend and Foe (IFF) – IFF interrogator for target verification at the BVR range;
• ‘Glass’ cockpit – Three large Multifunction Colour Displays (MFD) and smart Heads-Up Display (HUD) with built-in symbol generation capability; HOTAS;
• Targeting – Laser Designator and Targeting Pod (LDTP) for target illumination and detection with day/ night capabilities;

Weapons

Fixed weapon includes a GSh-23 dual-barrel 23mm cannon. Alternatively, the aircraft can be fitted with a GSh-30 dual-30mm cannon. There are 7 stores stations, including one under the fuselage, 4 under the wings, and 2 wingtip mounted, with up to 3,700kg weapon payload.

The aircraft is callable of ‘beyond-visual-range’ (BVR) attack capability with the PL-12 (SD-10) active radar-homing medium-range air-to-air missile (MRAAM) developed by China Leihua Electronic Technology Research Institute (LETRI, also known as 607 Institute). The aircraft also carries two short-range AAMs on its wingtip-mounted launch rails. The options include U.S. AIM-9P and Chinese PL-7, PL-8, and PL-9.

For air-to-ground missions, the aircraft can carry two Chinese C-802AK anti-ship cruise missile s(ASCM), or two Chinese CM-400AKG standoff air-to-surface missiles, or Chinese LS-6 INS/GPS guided bombs, or laser-guided bombs (LT-2/LT-3/GBU-12)., or unguided weapons such as low-drag general-purpose (LDGP) bombs and unguided rocket launchers. In addition, the PAF JF-17s are also equipped with the Brazilian MAR-1 anti-radiation missile (ARM).

Engine

The FC-1/JF-17 is powered by a Russian-made Klimov RD-93 turbofan jet engine rated 49.4kN dry or 84.4kN with afterburning. The RD-93 is a derivation of the RD-33 used by the MiG-29 fighter. In 2007, China signed a contract with Russia to supply 150 RD-93 engines for the JF-17 production.

The Block-II variant also features a detachable in-flight refuelling probe on the starboard side of the cockpit.

Liyang Aero Engine Corporation in Guizhou is reportedly developing an indigenous turbofan engine designated WS-13 (or Tianshan-21) as an alterative powerplant option for the FC-1. The engine was said to have been based on the RD-93 design with some modifications.

Gallery

Specifications (FC-1/JF-17)

The PLA Naval Air Force (PLANAF) has deployed two KJ-500 AEW&C aircraft to Hainan Island in southern China, to provide C4ISR support for Chinese naval and air operations in the disputed South China Sea.

A DefenseNews.com report on Friday 12 May revealed exclusive satellite imagery obtained from DigitalGlobal showing two Shaanxi KJ-500 turboprop airborne early warning and control (AEW&C) aircraft on the ground at Jialaishi Air Base in the northern part of Hainan Island. The satellite image also shows a Shaanxi KJ-200 AEW&C and a Y-8X maritime patrol aircraft stationed nearby in the same air base.

The report suggested that the deployment is part of rotational deployment of special role aircraft detachments to the island, and the detachments were drawn from two PLANAF special-mission aircraft regiments based in northern China.

Developed by Shaanxi Aircraft Industry Corporation, the KJ-500 is China’s newest AEW&C system. The aircraft first entered service in 2014—15, with 6 examples delivered so far. The aircraft was based on the airframe of the Shaanxi Y-9, a medium-sized four-engine turboprop transport aircraft developed from the Y-8, a Chinese copy of the Russian An-12 ‘Cub’.

Before the KJ-200, China had already introduced three AEW&C aircraft designs, including the KJ-2000 and KJ-200 for the PLA, and the ZDK-03 for the export market. The KJ-500 features a radar system similar to that of the KJ-2000, with three electronically steered phased-array (ESA) radar modules placed in a triangular configuration inside the fixed round radome to provide a 360-degree coverage.

Out of the six KJ-500s that have been delivered, two are believed to be in service with the PLANAF, with the rest serving with the PLAAF. The KJ500’s deployment to Hainan will greatly enhance the PLA’s intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) and battlespace management capabilities in the South China Sea region.

The J-10 is a multirole, all-weather fighter aircraft designed by Chengdu Aircraft Design Institute (611 Institute) and built by Chengdu Aircraft Industry Corporation (CAC), both subsidiaries of the Aviation Industry of China (AVIC) consortium. Having been operational with the PLA since 2003, the aircraft is available in the single-seat fighter variant (J-10A/B/C) and two-seater fighter-trainer variant (J-10S).

Programme

The programme to develop the J-10, known as Project 8610, started in the mid-1980s. The aircraft was originally intended to be a high-performance air-superiority fighter to counter the then emerging fourth-generation fighters such as F-16 and MiG-29, but the end of the Cold War and changing requirements shifted the development towards a multirole fighter with both air-to-air and ground attack mission capabilities.

The development of the J-10 has benefited from the cancelled Israeli Aerospace Industries (IAI) Lavi lightweight fighter project, including the aerodynamic design and the “fly-by-wire” flight control software. The aircraft was originally scheduled to be powered by a Western jet engine, but the arms embargo imposed by the United States and the EU in 1989 forced China to turn to Russia for assistance. As a result, the fuselage of the J-10 underwent some redesign in order to accommodate the larger Russian Saturn AL-31F engine.

The J-10 first flew on 22 March 1998 and was certified for design finalisation in early 2004. The aircraft entered operational service with the PLA in 2003, with the PLAAF 44th Air Division / 131st Fighter Regiment in Luliang Air Base, Yuannan Province becoming the first operational J-10 unit. The two-seater J-10S first flew in December 2003 and was certified in 2005. The initial batch of 100 examples in both single-seat and two-seater variants were delivered to the PLAAF and PANAF between 2004 and 2006.

The improved J-10B single-seat fighter made its maiden flight in December 2008 and delivery of the aircraft reportedly began in 2014. The aircraft was first unveiled to the public during the 2016 Zhuhai Air Show. This further improved single-seat fighter variant designated J-10C first flew in December 2013 and was undergoing operational test and evaluation with the PLAAF as of the end of 2016. The J-10 has also been marketed by CAC/AVIC to foreign customers under the designation FC-20. However, but has not secured any order despite numerous speculations about potential buyers.

Variants

J-10

The basic variant J-10 is equipped with an indigenous Type 1473 fire-control radar featuring a mechanically slewed planar array antenna, capable of tracking 10 targets and engaging 2 (using semi-active radar-homing AAM) or 4 (using active radar-homing AAM) of them simultaneously. The cockpit of the J-10 features a “Hands On Throttle And Stick” (HOTAS) controls that enable operation of weapon systems while hands remain on these critical aircraft controls. There is one coloured and two monochrome liquid crystal multifunctional display (MFD) and a wide field of view head-up display (HUD). In addition, the aircraft could also use the indigenous helmet-mounted sight (HMS).

The aircraft is equipped with an internally-mounted Type 23-3 twin-barrel 23mm cannon, located on the port side of the front landing gear. The aircraft has 11 external stores stations for weapon carriage: three under each wing and five under the fuselage. Air-to-air weapons include the PL-11 semi-active radar-homing medium-range air-to-air missile, PL-12 (SD-10) active radar-homing medium-range air-to-air missile, and PL-8 IR-homing short-range air-to-air missile. For ground attack missions, the aircraft can carry 250 kg conventional low-drag general-purpose bombs or laser-guided bombs. A laser targeting pod can be carried under the fuselage for target designation.

The J-10 is powered by a single Russian Saturn AL-31FN turbofan engine rated at 79.43 kN dry and 122.58 kN with afterburning. The aircraft has an empty weight of 8,300 kg and weighs 13,200 kg in a typical air-to-air combat configuration, or 18,000 kg in maximum take-off configuration. The internal fuel capacity is 4,500 kg and the maximum external weapon load is 6,600 kg. The aircraft can achieve a maximum speed of Mach 2.2 at high altitude or Mach 1.2 at sea-level, with a service ceiling of 18,000 m. The combat radius is 800 km (with three drop tanks and without in-flight refuelling). The J-10 can be fitted with a fixed refuelling probe, which extends the aircraft’s combat radius to 1,100 km.

J-10S

The two-seater fighter-trainer variant J-10S is identical to the single-seater variant in performance and avionic configuration, but has its forward fuselage stretched to accommodate a second pilot seat. Two pilots sit in tandem in the two-seat cockpit with one single large bubble canopy. An enlarged dorsal spine accommodates additional avionic for the second pilot. The aircraft can be used for pilot training or as a standard fighter.

 J-10B

The improved J-10B single-seat fighter began flight test in December 2008. The most distinctive feature of this variant is its chin-mounted diffuser supersonic inlet (DSI), which employs a one-piece bump at the top of the inlet replacing the movable ramp. This eliminates all moving parts on the inlet, lightening the overall weight and reducing the aircraft’s radar signature.

The J-10B has been added with an electronic-optic targeting system (EOTS). Placed forward of the cockpit canopy to the right, the system comprises an infrared search and track (IRST) sensor and a laser rangefinder, which can detect enemy targets passively without requiring to turn on the fire-control radar, thus reducing the chance of the aircraft being detected.

The aircraft has also been upgraded with an improved suite of avionics, including an indigenous passive electronically scanned array (PESA) fire-control radar, capable of engaging 4 targets simultaneously. The upper edge of the aircraft’s tailfin is curved, in contrast to the straight-edged tailfin of the J-10. A large fairing is added to the tip of the tailfin to accommodate electronic warfare and countermeasures (EW/ECM) equipment. There are also four black electronic countermeasures (ECM) antenna arrays attached externally to the fuselage, a larger one on either side of the cockpit and a smaller one on either side of the rear fuselage near the engine nozzle.

As well as the weapons equipped by the basic variant, the J-10B is capable of firing the new-generation PL-10 IR-homing SRAAM and PL-15 active radar-homing MRAAM.

J-10C

The latest addition to the J-10 family is the J-10C single-seat fighter, which made first flight in December 2013. This variant is almost identical to the previous B variant in appearance, but features an indigenous active electronically scanned array (AESA) fire-control radar. The aircraft was undergoing operational test and evaluation with the PLAAF as of the end of 2016.

Design

Aerodynamics

The J-10 features a “tailless delta-canard” aerodynamic design, with the horizontal control surfaces becoming a canard in front of the wing. When the aircraft pitches up, instead of forcing the tail down decreasing overall lift, the canard lifts the nose, increasing the overall lift. Because the canard is picking up the fresh air stream instead of the wake behind the main wing, the aircraft can achieve better control authority with a smaller-size control surface, thus resulting in less drag and less weight.

The tailless delta-canard configuration is inherently aerodynamically unstable, which provides a high level of agility, particularly at supersonic speeds. However, this requires a sophisticated computerised control system, or “fly-by-wire” (FBW), to provide artificial stabilisation and gust elevation to give good control characteristics throughout the flight envelope. The J-10 uses a digital quadruplex (four-channel) FBW system. The onboard flight control computer ‘flies’ the aircraft for the pilot, providing automatic flight coordination and keeping the aircraft from entering potentially dangerous situations such as unintentional slops or skids. This therefore frees the pilot to concentrate on his intended tasks during the combat.

The aircraft employs an adjustable, chin-mounted air intake that supplies air to the engine. On the basic model the upper portion of the air intake is incorporated with an intake ramp designed to generate a rearward leaning oblique shock wave to aid the inlet compression process. The ramp sits at an acute angle to deflect the intake air stream from the longitudinal direction. This design created a gap between the air intake and the forward fuselage, and requires six small beams to enhance the structure for high-speed flight. On the later B and C models, this air intake design has been replaced by a diffuser supersonic inlet (DSI) with no moving part.

The pilot sits in the cockpit located above the air intake and in front of the canard. The two-piece bubble canopy gives the pilot great vision at all directions, a vital feature during air-to-air combat. On the two-seater fighter-trainer variant J-10S,  the two pilots sit in tandem in the two-seat cockpit with one single large bubble canopy. An enlarged dorsal spine accommodates additional avionic for the second pilot.

Avionics

The basic variant J-10 is equipped with an indigenous Type 1473H fire-control radar featuring a mechanically slewed planar array antenna, capable of tracking 10 targets and engaging 2 (using semi-active radar-homing AAM) or 4 (using active radar-homing AAM) of them simultaneously. Possibly based on Russian or Israeli technologies, the radar is believed to be comparable to the early 1990s-era Western fighter radar designs. Alternatively, the J-10 could be fitted with the Russian Phazotron Zhuk-10PD or Zhemchug, the Chinese JL-10A, the Israeli IAI Elta EL/M-2023, or the Italian Galileo Avionica Grifo 2000.

The cockpit of the J-10 features a “Hands On Throttle And Stick” (HOTAS) controls that enable operation of weapon systems while hands remain on these critical aircraft controls. There is one colour and two monochrome liquid crystal multifunctional display (MFD) that allow pilot to view flight data, weapon status, and target information by pressing a button; a wide field of view head-up display (HUD) that displays flight data and target information in front of the pilot. The aircraft could also use the indigenous helmet-mounted sight (HMS) that enables fast reaction in air-to-air combat.

Other avionics include:

• Infra-red search and track pod;
• BM/KG300G self-protection jamming pod;
• KZ900 electronic reconnaissance pod;
• Blue Sky navigation/attack pod;
• FILAT (Forward-looking Infra-red Laser Attack Targeting) pod;

Armaments

Fixed armaments of the J-10 include an internally-mounted Type 23-3 twin-barrel 23mm cannon, located on the port side of the front landing gear. The aircraft has 11 external stores stations for weapon carriage, three under each wing and five under the fuselage. The centreline under-fuselage station and the two inbound wing stations are pumped to carry drop tanks, with a 800-litre tank for the centreline station and a 1,700-litre tanks for each of the wing stations. The two under-fuselage stations at front (under air intake) could be used to carry various targeting or navigation pods for operations at night and in complex weather conditions.

Engine

The J-10 is powered by a single AL-31F turbofan engine, built by Moscow-based Salyut Machine Building Enterprise (now NPO Saturn). The AL-31F is a high-performance jet engine originally developed for the Su-27, Su-30MK and Su-33 fighters and the Su-34 bomber. The version used by the J-10 is the AL-31FN, a modified variant specially tailored for the J-10. In order to fit the engine into the J-10 airframe, Russia engine supplier made necessary modifications on the AL-31F, including relocating the accessory gearbox to be mounted beneath the engine. The development of the AL-31FN was completed in 2000. The AL-31FN is rated at 76.2 kN (7,770 kg, 17,130 lb) dry and 122.55 kN (12,500 kg, 27,557 lb) with afterburning.

Salyut has also developed an improved version of the AL-31FN, featuring a fully variable, all-aspect thrust vector control (TVC) nozzle and an increased afterburning thrust of 124.54kN (12,700kg, 27,998lb), but this was not adopted on the J-10 or its improved variants. Instead, the Chinese aviation industry is hoping to replace the Russian engine with the indigenous WS-10A ‘Taihang’, which was developed from the AL-31F technology. The WS-10A development was said to have completed in 2005 but was not fully successful. As a result, subsequent J-10 productions continued to rely on the Russian engine.

Specifications (J-10)

Seventeen Type 051 (NATO designation: Luda class) missile destroyers were built between 1970 and 1991 for the PLA Navy. The class was China’s first independently developed destroyer. Some hulls received modernisation upgrade with new weapon systems and sensors in the 1990s. Decommission of the Type 051 began in late 2007, with the last hull expected to be decommissioned by 2022.

Programme

In the mid-1960s, the PLA Navy sought a new class of destroyer which would serve as a multipurpose platform for a range of roles, including sizing sea control in offshore waters to eliminate the threat of enemy anti-submarine forces to PLA Navy submarines; obtaining sea dominance against the ROC Navy in the Taiwan Strait; protecting China’s interests in the South China Sea; and escorting survey ships to the target zone in the South Pacific for the full-range missile test of the DF-5 (CSS-4) ICBM.

At 3,000 t displacement, Type 051 was substantially larger than earlier surface combatant operated by the PLA Navy and had almost twice the displacement of the Soviet-made 1,600-t displacement Type 07 (Anshan class) destroyers. The vessel was powered by four boilers and two steam turbines, giving a maximum speed of 32 knots. It was equipped with a wide range of weapons and sensors for air defence, surface strike, and anti-submarine roles. Type 051 was also the first Chinese-built surface vessel capable of receiving underway replenishment, which enabled it to operate continuously at sea without having to return to its base.

The design of Type 051 was carried out by 701 Institute based in Wuhan, Hubei Province. The design was officially approved in June 1967, and the first hull DDG-223 (later DDG-105 Jinan) began construction at the Dalian Shipyard in 1968. The vessel was launched in July 1970 and commissioned by the PLA Navy in December 1971. The first test fire of the HY-1 anti-ship missile from the destroyer was carried out in September 1973, while the design team was still working on finalising the destroyer design.

In 1975, Type 051 was certified for design finalisation. By then, construction of the destroyer was carried out at three locations simultaneously: Dalian Shipyard, Zhonghua Shipyard (Shanghai), and Guangzhou Shipyard. Later hulls were added with improved sensors. The last two hulls constructed in the late 1980s, DDG-165 Zhanjiang and DDG-166 Zhuhai, featured a C3I system consisting of combat information centre, long-range 3D air/sea-search radar, and ECM suite. Some hulls received modernisation overhaul, added with the YJ-8 AShM, HQ-7 SAM, Type 76A dual 37-mm AAA, Type 363 (TSR3004 Sea Tiger) air-surface search radar, 324-mm ASW torpedo launchers, etc. DDG-105 Jinan was also added with a hanger and flight deck to support a Harbin Z-9 ASW/SAR helicopter.

Despite its improvement over precious Chinese surface combatants in size, weapons, and sensors, Type 051 was often criticized as being deficient in overall combat capability and unsuitable for long-endurance sea operations. The destroyer only had limited air defence against a very narrow range of air threats, making it highly vulnerable in modern sea warfare. Partially based on the 1950s-era Soviet Kotlin class destroyer, Type 051 had very limited redundancy to damage in its hull design and extremely poor living condition onboard. Additionally, the destroyer’s radar and communication systems were very dated and there was no NBC protection. Some of these weaknesses have been addressed during the modernisation refit programmes.

Nevertheless, through the Type 051 programme, the Chinese shipbuilding industry obtained valuable knowledge and experience in designing and building a large surface combatant independently, and was able to apply these know-hows to design and build larger, more advanced destroyers later.

Variants

The Type 051 destroyers have been constructed in three batches and can be identified in seven variants:

• Mod 1 (Type 051 Luda class) – First batch of seven hulls built between 1968 and 1975, including DDG-105 Jinan, DDG-160 Guangzhou, DDG-106 Xi’an, DDG-161 Changsha, DDG-107 Yinchuan, DDG-162 Nanning, and DDG-131 Nanjing.
• Mod 1A (Type 051 Luda-II class) – In 1987, DDG-105 Jinan received modification to be added with a helicopter hanger and flight deck. The ship was identified by NATO as Luda-II class.
• Mod 2 (Type 051 ‘Dingxing’ Luda class) – Second batch of eight hulls built between 1977 and 1990, with slightly different radar configuration to the previous batch. They include DDG-108 Xining, DDG-132 Hefei, DDG-109 Kaifeng, DDG-163 Nanchang, DDG-110 Dalian, DDG-133 Chongqing, DDG-134 Zunyi, and DDG-164 Guilin.
• Mod 2A (Type 051 ‘Zhihui’ Luda class) – Among the second batch, DDG-110 Dalian and DDG-132 Hefei were specially configured to serve as fleet air defence command posts, equipped with the long-range air surveillance radar.
• Mod 2B (Type 051 Luda class) – In 1991, DDG-109 Kaifeng was added with a French Crotale SAM launcher and Castor-II radar.
• Mod 3 (Type 051G Luda-III class) – The third batch, designated Type 051G, began construction in the late 1980s. DDG-165 Zhanjiang featured improved radar and C3I system. DDG-166 Zhuhai had further improvements in weapon and was identified by NATO as the Luda-III class.
• Mod 4 (Type 051 Luda class) – In 1999, DDG-109 Kaifeng received its second modernisation refit. In 2002, DDG-110 Dalian received similar refit, followed by DDG-165 Zhanjiang and DDG-166 Zhuhai in 2003. The latter two also featured improved radar.

Design

Anti-Surface

Type 051 employed the Type 76 dual-barrel 130 mm/58-calibre gun and the Haiying-1J (HJ-1J, NATO reporting name: CSS-N-1 ‘Silkworm’) anti-ship missile. Each of the two Type 76 guns (one front, one rear) fires 33.4 kg shells at a rate of 17 rounds/minute to a range of 29 km against surface targets. They can also be used for air defence and shore bombardment. Six HY-1J liquid-propellant missiles are housed in two rotatable 3-cell launchers installed in the mid-ship position. The missile uses active radar homing to a maximum range of 70 km, flying at subsonic speed (Mach 0.95). The warhead is 513 kg.

The Luda-III class (DDG-166 Zhuhai) was equipped with eight solid-propellant, 40 km-range YJ-8 (C-801, NATO reporting name: CSS-N-4 ‘Sardine’) anti-ship missiles. These were subsequently replaced by sixteen improved YJ-83 (NATO reporting name: CSS-N-8 ‘Saccade’) anti-ship missiles during modernisation refit.

The fire-control for the main guns and AShM was provided by the Type 343G (NATO reporting name: ‘Wasp Head’ and ‘Wok Won’) radar located on top of the bridge.

The strike weapon package for the Mod 4 variant includes the PJ33A dual-barrel 100-mm/56-calibre guns and the YJ-83 anti-ship missiles. The PJ33A gun was developed from the Type 79A dual-barrel 100-mm gun, but has a redesigned gun house with strong radar cross-section reduction features. Sixteen box-shape YJ-83 missile launchers are organised into four groups, each with four launchers. The YJ-83 employs active radar homing and a turbojet powerplant (with a solid rocket booster). The missile has a reported range of 120 km and approaches the target in sea skimming mode at a speed of Mach 0.9. The 165 kg shaped charge warhead has time delayed impact proximity fuses.

On DDG-165 Zhanjiang and DDG-166 Zhuhai, the Type 343G radar was replaced by a more advanced Type 344 radar to provide targeting information for the dual 100-mm main guns and YJ-83 AShM.

Air Defence

Early variants Type 051 relies purely on AAA guns to provide limited air defence. Each destroyer has four Type 76 dual-37mm manual/automatic AAA guns and four Type 61 dual 25-mm manual AAA guns. On DDG-166 Zhuhai, the four Type 76 guns were replaced by four improved Type 76A guns (fully automatic with concealed turret) and the 25-mm AAA guns were all removed. The Type 76A guns were directed by two Type 347G fire-control radars (one front, one rear).

The PLA Navy obtained some examples of the French Crotale short-range air-defence missile system in the 1980s and installed one system on No.109 (Kaifeng) for trial and evaluation (Mod 2B). The system includes an 8-cell missile launcher and a Thompson-CSF Castor CTM fire-control radar. Later the missile system was produced in China as the HQ-7. The rear dual 37-mm AAA gun on the stern deck of the Type 051 has to be removed in order to provide space for the SAM system. The missile can only be reloaded manually as there is no enough space for the bulky automatic reloader.

The air defence package for the Mod 4 variant included an HQ-7 SAM system and three Type 76A dual 37-mm automatic AAA guns. The 8-cell HQ-7 SAM launcher and the Type 345 (Castor copy) radar are installed on the stern deck, in front of the rear main gun. One Type 76A automatic AAA gun is installed on the bow deck in front of the bridge, and two are installed at the mid-ship position. They are directed by a single Type 347G radar on top of the bridge. DDG-109 Kaifeng also retained two Type 61 dual 25-mm manual AAA guns.

The Mod 1/1A/2 variants have a Type 354 (NATO reporting name: ‘Eye Shield’) radar mounted on top of the main mast for air and surface search. The radar has a maximum detection range of 100km against aircraft-sized airborne targets. Long-range 2D air surveillance and early warning is provided by a Type 515 (NATO reporting name: ‘Bean Sticks’ or ‘Pea Sticks’) or Type 517 (NATO reporting name: ‘Knife Rest’) radar located behind the rear mast.

The Mod 2B/3 variants were fitted with a Type 381A (NATO reporting name: ‘Rice Screen’) long-range 3D air surveillance radar mounted on the rear mast and a combat information centre (CIC), which enable the destroyers to provide air defence intelligence for a whole task force. These hulls served as the flagships of the flotillas in which they were deployed. Following the modernisation upgrade to Mod 4 standard, the Type 381A radar on these hulls has been removed and replaced by a Type 362 (copy of the Thompson-CSF TSR-3004 Sea Tiger).

Anti-Submarine Warfare

All hulls were fitted with two Type 75 (FQF-2500) twelve-barrel 240-mm antisubmarine rocket launchers on the bow deck. The rocket is armed with a 34-kg warhead and has a maximum range of 1,200 m. The destroyer also carried four BMB projectors and four racks for depth charges at the stern. Alternatively, the destroyer could carry 38 mines.

The destroyer was fitted with an SJD-II medium-frequency bow-mounted sonar for long-range search, and an SJD-IV medium-frequency hull-mounted sonar for active search and attack. No.166 (Zhuhai) also has a DUBV-43 (ESS-1) towed medium-frequency variable depth sonar (VDS) for active attack.

The Mod 3/4 variants were fitted with two Alenia B515S (or its Chinese copy) triple-324mm torpedo launchers, which is used to launch the Yu-7 (copy of the U.S. Mk46 Mod1) anti-submarine torpedo. The Yu-7 carried a 45-kg warhead to engage underwater target at a speed of 43 knots, and has a maximum range of 7.3 km.

Navigation and ECM

The Type 051 employed the Recal Decca series navigation radar co-produced locally under license. These include the Decca 707 (“Fin Curve”) and the more advanced Decca RM-1290.

Mod 1/1A/2/2A/2B are equipped with the ‘High Pole’ IFF and the RW-23-1 (NATO reporting name: ‘Jug Pair’) radar warning receivers. DDG-166 Zhuhai was fitted with a Type 825 electronic countermeasures (ECM) suite consisting of interceptors and jammers, but it was removed during the modernisation refit.

The Mod 4 variant was equipped with two Type 946 15-barrelled chaff/decoy launchers.

Command & Control

The Mod 1/1A/2 variants lacked the integrated command and control system. Radio and telephone were provided for intra-ship, inter-ship, and ship-to-land communications. The Mod 2A variant was added with a combat information centre for fleet air defence. The Mod 4 variant was added with a ZJK-4 combat data system developed from the French TAVITAC. Later hulls were all equipped with satellite navigations, satellite communications (SATCOM), and No.11 datalink.

Aviation

DDG-105 Jinan/Mod 1A variant received a refit in 1987, with its rear 130-mm gun and AAA gun removed to give space to a 17m X 10.5 X 5.5mm helicopter hanger and a 25m X 12.8m flight deck. The vessel was also added with helicopter landing assistance/handling system and aviation fuel storage to support two Harbin Z-9 helicopters.

Propulsion

The propulsion system of Type 051 destroyer is steam turbines with 4 boilers and 2 turbines rated at 72,000hp (53MW), and 2 shafts, giving a max speed of 32 knots.

Specifications

Displacement:......3,250 t (standard); 3,670 t (full load)
Length:............132 m
Beam:..............12.8 m
Draft:.............4.6 m
Speed..............32 knots
Range:.............2,970 miles at 18 kt
Crew:..............280 (up to 300 maximum, 45 officers)

Ship List

Type 051 Luda Class

Type 051 Luda-II class DDG-105 Jinan

Type 051G Luda-III class DDG-166 Zhuhai

Type 051 Luda Class Modernisation

Type 052 (NATO reporting name: Luhu class) is the PLA Navy’s first ‘true’ multirole missile destroyer. Utilising a mixture of Chinese- and Western-designed weapon systems and sensors, the destroyers are able to fulfil a variety of roles from surface strike, air defence, to antisubmarine warfare (ASW). They are also the first Chinese naval vessels to utilise the more advanced gas turbine propulsion.

Programme

The PLA Navy began to develop the concept of a new-generation multirole missile destroyer in the late 1980s. The destroyers were designed by Shanghai-based China Ship Building Institute (701 Institute) and built by Hudong Shipyard (now Hudong-Zhonghua Shipyard) in Shanghai. Construction of the first-of-class DDG-112 Harbin began in 1986, and the ship was launched in 1991. System installation and sea trial lasted for three years before the ship finally entered the service in 1994. The delay was mainly caused by the complexity of integrating various foreign-made contents. The second hull DDG-113 Qingdao was commissioned in 1996.

DDG-112 Harbin was first revealed during the PLA exercise during the 1996 Taiwan Strait Crisis. On 21 March 1997, the destroyer and two other Chinese warships made a historical visit to San Diego, California in the first-ever visit by PLA Navy ships to the mainland U.S. Between May and October 2002, a fleet comprising DDG-113 Qingdao and AO-575 Taicang replenishment ship conducted the first global cruise in the PLA Navy’s history.

Type 052 is the first Chinese-built surface combatant that meets modern standards, representing a significant improvement in China’s shipbuilding and shipborne weapon technologies. The destroyer is fitted with sophisticated air defence, anti-submarine warfare, electronic warfare, and C3I systems. The advanced gas turbine propulsion provides the vessel with high power-to-weight ratio and enables them to accelerate and get underway quickly.

The hull design of Type 052 features certain European influence. The ship has a higher beam-length ratio which increases the stability of the ship in bad weather conditions, but sacrifices the speed performance of the ship. With a full displacement of 4,800 t, the destroyer was also the largest surface warship in service with the PLA Navy at the time of its commission.

Despite their significant improvement over the previous Type 051 Luda class destroyer, Type 052 is still regarded as inferior to the surface combatants introduced by Western and Russian navies in the same age. The ship’s air defence firepower, originally consisting of a 13 km-range Crotale/HQ-7 SAM launcher and four twin-37mm AAA guns, is only capable of point defence against limited number of targets. The ship’s variable depth sonar (VDS) was still inferior to the latest Western designs. Additionally, the shipborne Z-9C naval helicopter only had very limited antisubmarine warfare capability.

A key weakness of the Type 052 destroyer is its large amount of foreign-made systems, which were sourced from the U.S., France, and Italy. These systems were not made to operate together or with Chinese-made systems, and as a result, they were not well integrated. In addition, the two hulls of the class also differed slightly in weapon system configuration. For these reasons, the two Type 052 hulls primarily served as technology demonstrators, with no follow-up hull built.

In 2003/04, both hulls of Type 052 received midlife modernisation refits, including the replacement of the eight YJ-8 AShMs with sixteen YJ-83s; the replacement of the French French Thales Crotale SAM with the indigenous HHQ-7; the replacement of the HP/J33A dual-100 mm main gun with the Type 79A dual-100 mm gun; and the replacement of the original Type 362 air/surface radar with a Type 364 radar.

In 2011, a second modernisation refit of both hulls involved the replacement of the four Type 76A guns with two Type 730 close-in weapon systems (CIWS) installed on top of the helicopter hangar; the replacement of the original HHQ-7 SAM was replaced by the improved HHQ-7B; and the replacement of the Type 581 Hai Ying radar with the Type 517M long-range air search radar.

Design

Missiles

Following the modernisation refit, the primary surface strike weapon system of Type 052 is the YJ-83 sea-skimming anti-ship cruise missile. Four quadruple launchers are installed at the mid-ship position. The missile uses active radar-homing to deliver a 165 kg warhead to a range in excess of 180 km.

The main air defence weapon is an 8-cell HHQ-7 short-range SAM system, designed to engage aircraft in all-weather, day/night conditions at a maximum range of 8—12 km with line-of-sight guidance. The missile also has limited capability to intercept sea-skimming anti-ship missiles at a much closer range (4—6 km).

Guns

A Type 79A (PJ-33) dual-barrel 100-mm/56-calibre gun is installed on the bow deck, in front of the SAM launcher. The gun is capable of firing 15 kg shells at a rate of 18 rounds per minute to a range of 22 km.

For air defence the frigate is equipped with four Type 76A dual 37-mm anti-aircraft artillery guns, capable of firing 1.42 kg shells at a rate of 180 rounds per minute to a range of 8.5 km against airborne targets. These were later replaced by two Type 730 CIWS. The seven-barrel gun provides a firing rate of 4,600—5,800 rounds/minute and a maximum firing range of 3,000 m. Each CIWS has its own independent power-supply, as well as a Type 347G (EFR-1) fire-control radar (6 km detection range against airborne targets of RCS 0.1m2) and an electro-optic director (5—6 km tracking range).

Anti-Submarine Warfare

Type 052 is fitted with two triple-324mm torpedo launchers, which is used to launch the Yu-7 (copy of the U.S. Mk46 Mod-1) anti-submarine torpedo. The Yu-7 carries a 45 kg to engage underwater target at a speed of 43 kt, and has a maximum range of 7.3 km.

There are two Type 75 (RBU-1200) 12-tube anti-submarine rocket launchers installed on the bow deck, with 120 rockets (240 mm calibre, 34 kg warhead). The maximum range is 1,200 m.

Sensors

The ship has a Thomson-CSF TSR 3004 Sea Tiger (or its Chinese copy Type 360S/SR60) for air and surface search; a Type 518 (REL-2) Hai Ying for long-range surveillance and early warning (later replaced by a Type 517M); a Type 345 (also known as MR35, J-band) for HQ-7 SAM fire-control; a Type 344 (also known as MR34, I/J-band) for YJ-83 SSM and 100-mm main gun fire-control; and two Type 347G (also known as EFR-1) Rice Bowl (I-band) for 37mm AAA fire-control. For navigation, the ship has two Racal Decca RM-1290 (I-band).

The destroyer is fitted with two types of sonar systems, including the DUBV-23 (SJD-8/9) medium-frequency hull-mounted sonar for active search and attack, and the DUBV-43 (ESS-1) towed medium-frequency variable depth sonar (VDS) for active attack. The Type 052 is the first Chinese destroyer to be fitted with VDS as a standard equipment.

Electronic Countermeasures

The Type 052 has two Type 946 15-barrelled chaff/decoy launchers. Active ECM system include the Type 826C (BM-8610) intercept and jammer.

Command & Control

The Type 052 is the first Chinese surface combatant to have been equipped with an integrated combat data system. The ZJK-4 is a Chinese copy of the Italian Alenia Marconi Systems (now Selex Sistemi Integrati) IPN-10, which integrates the target acquisition, navigation, communications, signal processing and weapon control functions. The combat system central computer computes and evaluates the target data and allocates data to the weapon systems. The system carries out multiple target search and track, target prioritisation and automatic engagement of weapons.

Other systems include two Type 630 (GDG-775) optronic directors, British-made SNTI-240 satellite communications (SATCOM), and datalink.

Aviation

The helicopter deck at the stern has a single landing spot for a medium size helicopter such as Harbin Z-9C. The deck is fitted with the helicopter handling system. A fully equipped hangar accommodates two helicopter.

Propulsion

The propulsion system is a combined diesel or gas turbine (CODOG) arrangement. The main propulsion consists of two GE LM2500 gas turbines rated at 55,000 hp (41 MW) sustained. Auxiliary propulsions include two Chinese license-built German MTU 12V 1163TB83 diesels rated at 8,840 hp (6.5 MW) sustained. The destroyer has 2 shafts with CP propellers, with a maximum speed of 31 knots.

Specifications

Displacement:......4,200 t (standard); 4,800 t (full load)
Length:............144 m
Beam:..............15.6 m
Draft:.............4.25 m
Speed..............31 knots
Range:.............4,000 nautical miles at 18 kt
Crew:..............270 (40 officers)

Ship List

Type 052 Luhu class

Type 052 Luhu class post 2011 modernisation refit

Type 051B (NATO reporting name: Luhai class) is the multirole missile destroyer commissioned by the PLA Navy in 1999, with only one hull ever constructed. The first-of-class DDG-167 Shenzhen was the largest surface vessel serving with the PLA Navy at the time of its introduction, and remained the most advanced Chinese indigenous surface combatant until more advanced designs were introduced in the mid-2000s.

Programme

Construction of the first and only hull of Type 051B began in December 1995, but most observers were not aware of the existence of the programme until early 1998, when a Japanese magazine revealed photos of the destroyer stationed at Dalian Shipyard waiting for system installation. Type 051B immediately attracted great attention, being the largest surface combatant ever introduced by the PLA Navy and the first Chinese warship to have adopted the sloped-side hull design to reduce the ship’s cross-section profile.

Type 051B was the first Chinese indigenous warship to have been incorporated with radar cross-section reduction features, including a streamlined hull with slightly sloped sides and superstructure, two solid masts with fewer protruding electronic sensor arrays, ‘cleaner’ deck with less weapon systems piled together, and two funnels with infrared signatures reduction devices. These features are inherited by the following-on indigenous destroyers in the PLA Navy.

Despite the various speculations about a vertical launch system (VLS) or possible integration of Russian-made systems, Type 051B turned out to be much less impressive in its weapon and radar configuration. The destroyer’s air defence system consisted of only an 8-cell HHQ-7 short-range SAM launcher and four dual 76-mm AAA guns, almost identical to that of the previous Type 052 destroyer. Due to the lack of high-power gas turbine or diesel technology, Type 051B reverted to the older steam turbine propulsion.

Nonetheless, Type 051B was the most advanced indigenous surface combatant at the time of its introduction. The first-of-class DDG-167 Shenzhen was launched in October 1997 and began its sea trial in October 1998. The destroyer was officially commissioned by the PLA Navy South Sea Fleet as its flagship in February 1999.

DDG-167 Shenzhen participated the PLA Navy’s first goodwill visit to Africa in 2000, and the first visit to Europe in 2001. In 2004, the destroyer received a mid-life modernisation refit, with its original 100 mm main gun replaced by the improved Type 79A dual 100-mm gun. In 2007, the destroyer became the first PRC warship to visit Japan. Between April and August 2009, the destroyer was deployed to the Gulf of Aden as part of the Chinese naval task force for counterpiracy operations.

Design

Missiles

The primary surface strike weapon system is the YJ-83 sea-skimming anti-ship cruise missile. Four quadruple launchers are installed at the mid-ship position. The missile uses active radar-homing to deliver a 165 kg warhead to a range in excess of 180 km.

The main air defence weapon is an 8-cell HHQ-7 short-range SAM system, designed to engage aircraft in all-weather, day/night conditions at a maximum range of 8—12 km with line-of-sight guidance. The missile also has limited capability to intercept sea-skimming anti-ship missiles at a much closer range (4—6 km).

Guns

A Type 79A (PJ-33) dual-barrel 100-mm/56-calibre gun is installed on the bow deck, in front of the SAM launcher. The gun is capable of firing 15 kg shells at a rate of 18 rounds per minute to a range of 22 km.

For air defence the frigate is equipped with four Type 76A dual-barrel 37-mm AAA guns, capable of firing 1.42 kg shells at a rate of 180 rounds per minute to a range of 8.5 km against airborne targets.

Anti-Submarine Warfare

The destroyer is fitted with two triple-324 mm torpedo launchers, which is used to launch the Yu-7 (copy of the U.S. Mk46 Mod1) anti-submarine torpedo. The Yu-7 carries a 45 kg to engage underwater target at a speed of 43 kt, and has a maximum range of 7.3 km.

Sensors

• 1x Type 360S (also known as SR60, E/F-band) for air and surface search;
• 1x Type 381 Rice Screen (G-band) for 3D air search;
• 1x Type 517H-1 Knife Rest (A-band) for 2D long-range air search;
• 1x Type 345 (also known as MR35, J-band) for HQ-7 SAM fire-control;
• 1x Type 344 (also known as MR34, I/J-band) for YJ-83 SSM and 100-mm main gun fire-control;
• 2x Type 347G (also known as EFR-1) Rice Bowl (I-band) for 37-mm AAA fire-control.
• 2x Racal Decca RM-1290 (I-band) for navigation.

Electronic Countermeasures

SRW210A intercept and jammer, radar warning receiver, IFF, and two Type 946 (PJ46) 15-barrel chaff/decoy rocket launchers.

Command & Control

The ship has an indigenous combat data system ZJK-4-3A to integrate various weapons and sensors onboard. The system is said to be capable of tracking and processing several hundred targets simultaneously.

Other systems include two OFD-630 optronic directors, satellite communications (SATCOM), and datalink.

Aviation

The helicopter deck at the stern has a single landing spot for a medium size helicopter such as Harbin Z-9C. The deck is fitted with the helicopter handling system. A fully equipped hangar accommodates two helicopter.

Propulsion

The ship is powered by two indigenous 453B steam turbines rated at 94,000 hp (70 MW) sustained. Auxiliary propulsions include two Chinese indigenous diesels rated at 8,840 hp (6.59 MW) sustained. The destroyer has 2 shafts with CP propellers, with a maximum speed of 31 knots.

2015 Modernisation Refit

In 2015, DDG-167 Shenzhen was spotted undergoing a modernisation refit at Zhanjiang naval base. It was reported that the refit included some significant improvements in weapon and sensors, including the replacement of the original HHQ-7 SAM launcher with a 32-cell vertical launch system (VLS) for the HHQ-16 medium-range SAM, the replacement of the four Type 76A dual 37-mm AAA guns with two H/PJ-11 eleven-barrelled 30-mm CIWS, a Type 382 radar replacing the original Type 381, and the Type 364 targeting radar.

Specifications

Displacement:......6,100 t (full load)
Length:............153 m
Beam:..............16.5 m
Draft:.............6.00 m
Speed..............31 knots
Range:.............12,000 nautical miles at 18 kt
Crew:..............250 (40 officers)

Ship List

Two PLA Air Force (PLAAF) Su-30MKK Flanker-G fighters conducted an “unprofessional” intercept of a U.S. Air Force WC-135C Constant Phoenix radiation detection aircraft over the East China Sea on Wednesday 17 May, according to a report by CNN.

A US official told CNN the Chinese fighter jets came within 150 feet (45.72 metres) of the WC-135C. One of the Su-30MKK plane even flew inverted directly above the US plane, in a manoeuvre similar to the one performed in the Hollywood movie Top Gun, in order to intimidate the US plane.

A U.S. Air Force spokesperson made a statement regarding the incident: “While we are still investigating the incident, initial reports from the U.S. aircrew characterized the intercept as unprofessional. The issue is being addressed with China through appropriate diplomatic and military channels.”

It is not the first time a U.S. military plane to have been intercepted by Chinese military jets, sometimes in close encounters. In February this year, a U.S. Navy P-3C Orion surveillance aircraft and a Chinese military surveillance aircraft came within 1,000 feet of each other over the skies of the South China Sea. In June last year, a USAF RC-135 reconnaissance aircraft was intercepted by a PLAAF Chengdu J-10 fighter, which came within 100 feet (30.48 metres) of the US plane.

It is worth noting that the WC-135C, designed to detect nuclear radiations in the atmosphere, was most likely conducting a surveillance mission targeted at North Korea, rather than monitoring Chinese activities, when the incident occurred.

The four-engine WC-135, nicknamed Nuclear Sniffer, was first introduced in the 1960s for weather reconnaissance and air-sampling missions. There are currently two examples in the C model serving with the U.S. Air Force. The aircraft has been frequently deployed to East Asia in recent years to monitor the missile and nuclear activities by North Korea. The latest deployment began last month, following a North Korea missile test on 3 April.

Similarly, the Chinese military frequently sent its own surveillance and other military aircraft to fly near the air space of its neighbouring countries, including Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan, and over the disputed waters in the East and South China Sea.

The PLA Navy received two Type 052B (NATO reporting name: Luyang class) multirole missile destroyers in 2004. Built by the Shanghai-based Jiangnan Shipyard (Group) Corporation, Type 052B is equipped with a combination of indigenous and Russian-made weapon systems and sensors. The destroyers are primarily tasked with anti-surface and anti-submarine roles, but they could also play a fleet air defence role.

Programme

Construction of the first-of-class, DDG-168 Guangzhou, began in early 2000 and the vessel was launched on 23 May 2002. It was then stationed at Jiangnan Shipyard since then for system installations. The sea trial began in May 2003, and the vessel was officially commissioned by the PLA Navy on 15 July 2004. The second hull DDG-169 Wuhan was launched in January 2003 and commissioned in late 2004. Both vessels are being deployed by the 9th Destroyer Flotilla of the PLA Navy South Sea Fleet (SSF).

Type 052B differs significantly to the European-influenced surface combatants commissioned previously by the PLA Navy. The destroyer is comparable in size and capabilities to the Russian Project 956 Sovremenny class, with similar weapon systems and sensors. Russian contributions to Type 052B include the 9M317 Shtil (NATO reporting name: SA-N-12 ‘Grizzly’) medium-range SAM, MR90 (‘Front Dome’) SAM fire-control radar, Fregat-MAE-5 (‘Top Plate’) 3D air/surface search radar, and Mineral-ME (‘Band Stand’) ASCM supporting datalink. Additionally, the vessel is powered by two Ukraine-made DA80/DN80 gas turbines.

In August 2005, DDG-168 Guangzhou took part in the Sino-Russia joint exercise in its debut deployment. In 2007, DDG-168 Guangzhou and AO-887 Weishanhu visited Russia, United Kingdom, Spain, and France. In December 2008, DDG-169 Wuhan was among the first task force of three Chinese warships to be deployed to the Gulf of Aden for counter-piracy operations. In March 2010, DDG-168 Guangzhou was also deployed to the Gulf of Aden for counter-piracy operations.

Design

Hull

Type 052B has a standard displacement of 5,850 t. The vessel’s hull design incorporates strong radar signature reduction features such as the sloped sides and reduced external features. The hull surface is coated in radar-absorbent paint. The funnel also has cooling devices to reduce the ship’s infrared feature. There is a stern flight deck and a helicopter hanger to accommodate one Ka-28 ASW helicopter.

Missiles

Type 052B is equipped with two Russian-made SAM launchers, one located on the bow deck behind the 100 mm main gun, and one on top of the helicopter hanger. The launchers can fire the 9M317 (other sources suggested 9M38M2) Shtil / SA-N-12 ‘Grizzly’ semi-active radar-homing, medium-range air-defence missile, with 48 missiles carried onboard. The missile’s maximum range is 38 km against aircraft and 20 km against anti-ship cruise missile.

The destroyer is armed with sixteen YJ-83 subsonic sea-skimming anti-ship cruise missiles (ASCM). Four quadruple launchers are installed at the mid-ship position. The missile uses active radar-homing to deliver a 165 kg warhead to a range in excess of 180 km.

Guns

The main gun on the bow deck is an indigenous H/PJ-87 single-barrel 100-mm gun developed by 713 Institute. Resembling the French Creusot-Loire T100C in design, the gun can be used against surface targets and air targets such as aircraft and low speed missile, with a maximum rate of fire of 90 rounds/min. The gun can be operated in fully automatic mode from the radar control system, from the shipborne optical sighting system, or laid manually.

There are two indigenous Type 730 CIWS installed at the mid-ship position on either side of the bridge. The seven barrels of the Type 730 provide a firing rate of 4,600—5,800 rounds/minute and a maximum firing range of 3,000 m. Each CIWS has its own independent power-supply, as well as a Type 347G (EFR-1) fire-control radar (6 km detection range against airborne targets of RCS 0.1m2) and an electro-optic director (5—6 km tracking range).

Anti-Submarine Warfare

Type 052B has two triple 324-mm torpedo launchers (B.515S copy) for the Yu-7 (Mk-46 Mod 1) active/passive acoustic-homing anti-submarine torpedoes. The Yu-7 carries a 45 kg warhead and has a maximum range of 7.3 km and a maximum speed of 28 knots. The depth of search/attack is 6—400 m.

There are two Type 87 six-barrel 240-mm antisubmarine rocket launchers, with 36 rounds. The rocket has a maximum range of 1,200 m and is armed with a 34 kg warhead.

Sensors

The Russian-made Fregat-MAE-5 (NATO reporting name: ‘Top Plate’) 3D air search radar, operating at E-band, is mounted at the top of the forward mast. The radar has a maximum detect range of 230 km to aircraft and 50 km to sea-skimming missile, and possesses the capability of tracking 40 targets simultaneously. There is also a large round radome mounted at the top of the rear mast, possibly housing a MR36 (Type 346?) surface search radar.

Four MR90 (NATO reporting name: ‘Front Dome’) F-band radars (two at the top of the bridge, two on the roof of the helicopter hanger) developed by the Russian Altair Marine Radio-Electronics Research Institute JSC provide guidance for the 9M317 Shtil / SA-N-12 Grizzly SAM. Each radar can provide two channels to guide two missiles simultaneously.

An indigenous Type 344 (MR34) fire-control radar operating at I/J-band is mounted at the top of bridge immediately in front of the forward mast to provide fire-control for the 100-mm main gun.

A large A large round radome installed on top of the bridge houses the Mineral-ME (NATO reporting name: Band Stand) datalink that provides the YJ-83 ASCM control and over-the-horizon radar acquisition and target designation of surface ships.

Type 052B is also fitted with a hull-mounted medium-frequency sonar for active/passive search and attack.

Countermeasures

The destroyer’s countermeasures suite includes active/passive jamming ECM systems and four Type 726-4 18-barrelled 122mm decoy launchers for chaffs and infrared flares.

Combat Data System

The ZJK-5 combat system onboard Type 052B is thought to be an improved variant of that onboard Type 051B. The ZJK-5 is based on the MIL-1553B military data bus and the 100Mbps Ethernet technology. The multi-channel defence suite is capable of engaging several targets simultaneously. The vessel also has satellite communications (SATCOM) and Link 11 secure tactical data link.

Aviation

The destroyer’s stern hanger accommodates one Kamov Ka-28 (NATO codename: Helix) antisubmarine warfare (ASW) helicopter. Carrying various weapons including torpedoes and deep charges, the helicopter can operate in all weather conditions up to 200 km from the host ship. Alternatively, the destroyer can carry an indigenous Z-9C helicopter.

Propulsion

The destroyer’s propulsion is in the form of CODOG, consisting of two Ukraine-made DA80/DN80 gas turbines rated at 48,600 hp and two Shaanxi diesels (Chinese copy of the MTU 20V956TB92) rated at 8,840 hp (6.5 MW), giving a maximum speed of 30 knots.

Specifications

Displacement:......5,850 t (standard); 6,500 t (full load)
Length:............154 m
Beam:..............17 m
Draft:.............6 m
Speed..............30 knots
Range:.............N/A
Crew:..............280

Ship List

The Z-19E, an export version of the Chinese indigenous Z-19 helicopter gunship, completed its maiden flight in the north-eastern city of Harbin on Thursday 18 May.

The basic variant Z-19, designed and built by AVIC Harbin Aircraft Industrial Group (HAIG), has already been serving with the PLA Army Aviation Corps since 2011. The concept of the E variant for the export market was first unveiled in September 2015.

The Z-19 was developed from the Harbin Z-9/H425 utility helicopter, a licensed copy of the French Eurocopter AS 365 Dauphin. It inherited the engine, transmission and rotor systems of the Z-9/H425, but has a redesigned, armour-protected fuselage with two tandem seats and two stub wings for external ordinance.

As a 4-ton-class light attack helicopter, the Z-19 is not thought to be as capable as the Changhe Z-10, but it offers a low-cost alternative to the latter. The helicopter shares a large amount of components and ground support equipment with the Z-9 series, which is in service with all three branches (ground, air force and navy) of the PLA, as well as a number of foreign militaries. The commonality in logistics would make the Z-19 particularly attractive to the existing Z-9 customers.

The Z-19 is powered by two China National South Aviation Industry Co. (CNSAIC) WZ8C turboshaft engines (rated at 581 kW each), which have been developed from the French Turbomeca Arriel-IC1. The helicopter has an empty weight of 2,350 kg, a take-off weight of 4,500 kg, a maximum cruising speed of 245 km/h, a ferry range of 700 km, and a service ceiling of 2,400 m.

The Z-19 carries a range of air-to-ground and air-to-air weapons, including the semi-active laser-homing KD-9 and KD-10 anti-tank guided missile, PL-90 IR-homing air-to-air missile, 12.7-mm machinegun pod, and unguided rocket pods. In addition, the helicopter also features an electronic countermeasures suite consisting of rear warning receivers (RWR) and an electro-optical turret (FLIR, TV and laser rangefinder).

The exact improvement of the Z-19E over the basic variant Z-19 is unclear, but Chinese media citing the helicopter’s designer reported the Z-19E features improved sensors, integrated avionics, and better information systems for situation awareness on the battlefield.

The Z-19E is generally comparable in performance and capability to the later variants of the AH-1 HueyCobra, and is particularly for low-intensity conflicts, counterterrorism, and counter-insurgency operations. The helicopter has already reportedly attracted some interest from potential foreign customers, though has yet received any confirmed order.

Z-19 in service with the PLA Army Aviation Corps