By the early 1980s, the Chinese space industry had shifted its priority to application satellites and commercial launch services. However, internal debates over the method to send human into space continued within the scientific community. Various designs for manned spacecraft ranging from manned capsule to space shuttles and spaceplanes were drawn up for evaluation. Research on space medicine and astronaut training also continued quietly.
Discussions over a Chinese manned space programme were reignited in the mid-1980s against a background of vigorous space activities around the world. The U.S. Space Shuttle began operational flights and President Ronald Reagan had just announced plan for an ambitious manned space station Freedom. The Soviet Union achieved a series of successes in its Salyut space station programme and had begun assembling its second-generation space station Mir. Europe and Japan had also revealed their plans for space station and human space flight. Chinese space planners became increasingly concerned that China may fall behind other nations in space exploration.
The 863 Programme
In March 1983, the U.S. Government announced its Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI, a.k.a. “Star Wars”), which called for the use of ground- and space-based systems to protect the United States from attack by strategic nuclear ballistic missiles. Chinese analysis of the programme concluded that Washington was trying to take advantage of U.S. economic strength to force the development of new technological breakthroughs, thereby ‘crushing’ the Soviet Union in science and technology and wearing it down economically. Therefore the SDI was not merely a weapon programme to neutralise the Soviet advantage in land-based ICBMs, but also a competition in scientific and technological innovation, industrial capability, and economic strength.
The U.S. announcement of the SDI triggered a series of discussions within the Chinese scientific community, which eventually led to a proposal calling for state funding to accelerate China’s research and development in some key areas of science and technology in response to the SDI. The proposal, titled “Recommendations Concerning Research to Keep Pace with Foreign Strategic High Technology Development”, was drafted by four leading Chinese scientists — Wang Daheng, Wang Ganchang, Yang Jiaxi, and Cheng Fangyun. The proposal along with a handwritten letter signed by the four authors was passed directly to senior Party and government leaders including Deng Xiaoping in March 1986.
Deng gave his personal endorsement to the proposal. Under his instruction, the State Council (central government) called in 200 leading scientists in different fields to Beijing in June 1986 to discuss a state high-tech development plan that later became known as the ‘863 Programme’. The plan focused on 15 priority programmes in seven key areas of science and technology: automation, biotechnology, energy, information technology, lasers, new materials, and space technology. Instead of delivering specific applications or products, the plan was intended to nurture China’s fundamental research in new and creative technologies.
The Space Technology Section of the 863 Programme was focused on the development of heavy launcher rocket, crew transportation system, and space station. While having a space station as the ultimate objective was never in question, different views existed over the choice of the means to transport astronauts to and from the future space station. Inspired by the success of the U.S. Space Shuttle and the programmes alike of other nations, most Chinese space professionals supported a similar space shuttle system, whereas a small minority were in favour of a conventional non-reusable capsule-type spacecraft. The Chinese aviation industry proposed the development of a more adventurous horizontal take-off and landing (HTOL) spaceplane. Not able to reach any conclusion, the State Council instructed that further studies were to be carried out before any decision could be made. To avoid bias against any proposal, the crew vehicle was vaguely referred to as the “Space-Earth Ferry Transportation System” in official 863 Programme writings.
The 863 Programme was officially launched in October 1986. The Space Technology Section of the programme was set the objectives to carry out preliminary research and conceptual studies on human space flight. A decision on the actual manned programme would only be made on the basis of a thorough evaluation. In February 1987, the 863 Space Expert Committee was established to lead the research with an allocated budget of RMB 3.8 billion. Underneath the committee were two expert groups: the Heavy Launcher Rocket and Space-Earth Ferry Transportation System Expert Group (Project 863-204) and the Space Station Expert Group (Project 863-205).
The Ministry of Aeronautical Industry Shuttle/Spaceplane Concepts
The Ministry of Aeronautical Industry, overseeing China’s aviation R&D institutions and manufacturers, initiated a conceptual study codenamed “Project 869” in late 1986 to develop its proposals for a reusable space-earth crew transportation system. The project called for the development of a winged reusable spacecraft vehicle with a payload capacity of 7 metric tons and a crew of 3—5 people, capable of automated flight and able to fly in a 300–500 km orbit for 2—7 days.
The first proposal produced for Project 869 was a vertical take-off and horizontal landing (VTOHL) space shuttle, consisting of an Orbital Vehicle launched atop a non-reusable Chang Zheng-3 launch vehicle with strap-on boosters. The adoption of an expendable booster would allow the development cost and time to be reduced. The Orbital Vehicle was 17 metres in length, 10 metres in wingspan, and 3.5 metres in body diameter, with a launch mass of 17 metric tons and capable of delivering 3—5 metric tons of cargo into orbit. The vehicle had a cargo bay 5 metres in length and with an internal volume of 35 cubic metres. The shuttle system would be able to make its first flight in 2000.
However, the ministry believed that such a design was not advanced enough and would become obsolete by the time it made its maiden flight. As a result, four more advanced fully reusable horizontal take-off and landing (HTOL) spaceplane concepts were proposed:
- A single-stage direct-to-orbit spaceplane powered by three air-breathing rocket engines;
- A single-stage direct-to-orbit spaceplane powered by six 47t-thrust ramjet engines and four rocket engines;
- A two-stage spaceplane with a first-stage powered by six 47t-thrust ramjet engines, and a second-stage powered by four rocket engines. The two would separate at an altitude of 26,000 metres and a speed of Mach 5.0.
- A two-stage spaceplane with a first-stage powered by sixteen 15t-thrust turbojet engines, and a second-stage powered by four 50t-thrust rocket engines. The two would separate at an altitude of 18,000 metres and a speed of Mach 2.62.
The project report estimated that it would take about 18—20 years to develop the spaceplane, including 2 years for concept evaluation, 7—9 years for technological validation, 6 years for engineering development, and 3 years for flight tests.
The Chengdu Aircraft Design Institute (611 Institute) also proposed a mini shuttle system based on the European Space Agency (ESA)’s Hermes spaceplane. The potential possibility of a Sino-Europe co-development programme would reduce development time and lower technological risks.
The Ministry of Astronautical Industry Shuttle Concepts
The Ministry of Astronautical Industry (formerly known as the Seventh Ministry of Machinery Industry) also proposed its own space shuttle concepts. The first design, known as Chang Cheng 1, was developed by the Shanghai Academy of Spaceflight Technology (SAST, a.k.a. the 8th Academy). The spacecraft was to be comparable in size and design to the U.S. Space Shuttle, but featured its own jet propulsion for flight within the atmosphere. The system was designed to transport astronauts and cargo to and from the space station in the Low Earth Orbit, but could also serve as a standalone system for Earth observation, scientific experiment, space station assembly and maintenance, space station crew rescue, and military roles.
Chang Cheng 1 had a flight crew of two and a mission crew of three, with a payload mass of 5 metric tons. The system was designed to fly 4 times a year and could be reused up to 30 times, with a designed lifespan of 15 years. It was estimated that the development of the system would take 20 years, with the first flight taking place in 2008 if the project was to be launched in 1988.
The spacecraft system consisted of an Orbiter Vehicle, and three HT-1 expandable single-stage liquid-propellant rocket boosters. Each booster was to be powered by four 1,500 kN rocket engines burning the liquid oxygen (LOX)/liquid hydrogen (LH2) propellants, with a burn time of 279–300 seconds. The Orbiter Vehicle adopted a tailless delta wing layout, and was powered by a 620 kN main engine and two 10 kN auxiliary thrusters, all of which would use the N2O4/UDMH propellants. Once the rocket boosters were jettisoned at an altitude of 176.5 kilometres, the Orbiter Vehicle would then use its own propulsion to reach a 200 x 500 km orbit.
The whole system had a launch mass of 1,015 metric tons and a take-off thrust of 1,380 kN, giving a thrust-weight ratio of 1.38. The orbital mass of the system would be 39 metric tons. It was 55.144 metres in length and 16.7 metres in width. The Orbiter Vehicle was 24.7 metres in length and 13.98 metres in wingspan, with a normal landing mass of 31.74 metric tons and an emergency landing mass of 32 metric tons.
A second vertical take-off and horizontal landing (VTOHL) shuttle concept was Tian Jiao 1, proposed by the China Academy of Launch Vehicle Technology (CALT, a.k.a. the 1st Academy). The system consisted of a fully reusable winged Orbital Vehicle about one-sixth the size of the U.S. Space Shuttle, and a non-reusable rocket booster based on an existing Chang Zheng launcher rocket design.
CAST Manned Capsule Concept
In March 1986, the China Academy of Space Technology (CAST, a.k.a. the 5th Academy) set up a space station and crew transportation system research group to conduct its own research into human space flight. In April, the Beijing Institute of Space Machinery and Electronics (508 Institute), a subsidiary of the CAST, proposed to use non-reusable capsule-type spacecraft to transport astronauts and cargo to the space station. It was also proposed that the capsule spacecraft would also serve as the space station’s emergency escape craft (lifeboat). The proposal was supported by the academy, which tasked 508 Institute to develop the concept of the multi-purpose capsule-type spacecraft.
By February 1987, 508 Institute had produced a paper detailing the concept of a three-module, one-flight space capsule similar to the Russian Soyuz-TM vehicle in configuration. The capsule was to be launched by the Chang Zheng rocket booster and recovered by parachute. As well as ferrying astronauts and/or cargo to the future space station, the spacecraft could also be docked to the space station to serve as a lifeboat.
Compared with the more sophisticated space shuttle and spaceplane proposals, the capsule concept did have its own unique advantages. With the success in launching and recovering the FSW Recoverable Satellite since the mid-1970s, China had already gained considerable knowledge and experience in the design, development, launch and recovery of ballistic capsule spacecraft. Therefore a manned capsule system could be developed fairly quickly, at a fraction of the cost for developing a shuttle or spaceplane system.
Space Shuttle vs Capsule
In 1987, a request for proposals went out from the Project 863-204 Expert Group to 60 aeronautical and astronautical R&D institutions across the country for the Space-Earth Ferry Transportation System. Out of all design proposals received, six were selected for further evaluation. These include:
- H-2 Spaceplane – Proposed by the Shenyang Aircraft Design Institute (601 Institute), this was a winged, fully reusable, horizontal take-off and landing (HTOL) system powered by ramjet engines.
- V-2 Spaceplane – Proposed by the 11th Institute, this was a two-stage, vertical take-off and horizontal landing (VTOHL) system. It consisted of a launcher vehicle and an Orbital Vehicle, both powered by rocket engines.
- Chang Cheng 1 Space Shuttle – Reusable vertical take-off and horizontal landing (VTOHL) system proposed by 805 Institute of SAST and 604 Aircraft Design Institute.
- Tian Jiao 1 Space Shuttle – Reusable vertical take-off and horizontal landing (VTOHL) system, about one-sixth the size of the U.S. Space Shuttle, proposed by the CALT.
- Mini Space Shuttle – A mini shuttle system similar in size and design to European Space Agency (ESA)’s Hermes spaceplane, proposed by the Chengdu Aircraft Design Institute (611 Institute).
- Manned Capsule – Three-module, one-flight capsule-type spacecraft proposed by 508 Institute of the CAST.
At a conference held in Harbin in July 1988, seventeen space experts of the Project 863-204 Expert Group made their final assessments on the six design proposals. The two designs that scored the highest were the CALT’s Tian Jiao 1 space shuttle, which scored 83.69 points out of 100, and 508 Institute’s capsule spacecraft, which scored 84 points. These results effectively ruled out the spaceplane, which was far beyond China’s technological and industrial capabilities. However, the Expert Group were still unable to reach a consensus between space shuttle and capsule. In the end, the Expert Group recommended to run two parallel development programmes, with a manned capsule that could first fly by 2000, and a space shuttle system that could first fly by 2015. However, heated debates between the supporters of the two designs continued over the next two years.
To the advocates of the space shuttle, the future Chinese manned space programme was not only an engineering project, but also an opportunity to boost China’s scientific and technological capabilities. A manned capsule would limit the beneficiaries of the programme within the space industry, whereas a shuttle programme would benefit a much wider range of industries. Some even believed that a capsule launched atop a rocket booster would be an international embarrassment for China as a space faring nation, since it was merely a repeat of what the Soviets and Americans had achieved two decades before.
It is hardly surprising that so many Chinese space professionals were strongly in favour of space shuttle. Many in the West also believed that with the introduction of the U.S. Space Shuttle the age of conventional capsule-type spacecraft was truly over. No space power was proposing a new capsule spacecraft — The Soviet Union was spending a significant amount of effort to develop its shuttle system Buran. The ESA was developing a mini shuttle system Hermes and Japan was also developing a shuttle system known as HOPE. With hindsight, none of these programmes have succeeded due to either technical or financial reasons and in the end human space flight moved back to capsules.
A leading figure among the minority of capsule supporters was Wang Xiji, who led the development of the FSW recoverable satellite and the Shuguang 1 capsule spacecraft in the 1970s. In his papers published in 1987, Wang pointed out a number of weaknesses of the U.S. Space Shuttle as an orbital transportation system, including poor safety and inefficiency as a result of its complex structure and design. Wang noted that the Space Shuttle had failed to achieve its promised benefits of cost reduction and high launch frequency.
Wang also argued that the ultimate goal of the China’s future manned space programme was to build a manned space station in low Earth orbit, and the crew transportation system should be an integral part of the bigger system. It would therefore be unwise to spend the majority of the investment and effort on the development of an advanced transportation system alone. A capsule system could deliver astronauts and/or cargo to the space station safely, at a fraction of the costs of a shuttle system.
As the debates continued, the capsule design began to gain support, especially among the political leadership. A major factor for this shift was that even at the most optimistic estimation, the space shuttle would not be able to fly until after 2010, a timescale unacceptable to the political leadership who expected to see China’s first man in space by 2000. In addition, the restoration of relations with the Soviet Union in the late 1980s also offered the Chinese space industry the access to Soviet capsule spacecraft technologies, which could significantly reduce the development costs, time and risks.
In February 1989, the Ministry of Aeronautical and Astronautical Industry (formed in 1988 by merging the two formally separate ministries) held another meeting to compare the manned capsule and space shuttle proposals. During the meeting, influential voices within the space industry including Zhuang Fenggan and Sun Jiadong both offered their support for the capsule design. During a second meeting in October 1989, the CAST made a strong case for the capsule spacecraft as the better, more suitable option to meet the objectives of China’s human space flight plan. By June 1990, consensus had been reached within the ministry that China should develop the manned capsule as the first step in its manned space programme.
